Figure 1.--. |
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The French monarchy had a special relationship with the Church. French kings had generally avoided the kind of open split with the papacy like the Investiture Controversy that so divided Germany. The Pope gave the kings of France the title of "Most Christian King." Each French King took an oath to "extirpate" heresy in his realm. The French Church despite the close relationship between the monarch an papacy had evolved considerable independence from the papacy. The French monarchy had perhaps more authority over the Church in his country than any other prince in Western Christendom. This was further recognized on the eve of the Reformation by the Concordat of Bologna which confirmed Francis I's authority to make appointments to benefices. As a result, many of the conditions which led to the Reformation in Germany were less apparent than in Germany. The Concordot provided for the rights of both pope anf king, but made the king clearly dominant over the French Church. While religious issues are most commonly discussed in connection with the Feformation, financial matters were a major concern at the time. The monarchy in France had enormous control over the disposition of the wealth and income of the French Church and routinely used the authority to appoint bishops, abbots, and other church officers to reward faithful followers because there was considerable income associated with many of these offices. As a result, the princes of the French Church included many worldly people, often uninterestred in spiritual or doctrinal matters, but often quite nationalistic. The Pope had a veto on such appointments, but out of defference to the monarch, rarely exercized it. Thus there was a considerable fusion of church and state in France very diffeent than the situation in Germany. The University of Paris (the Sorbonne) during the late Medieval era served as a kind of scholastic think-tank for both Church and state.
The French monarchy had a special relationship with the Church. French kings had generally avoided the kind of open split with the papacy like the Investiture Controversy that so divided Germany. The Pope gave the kings of France the title of "Most Christian King." Each French King took an oath to "extirpate" heresy in his realm.
The French Church despite the close relationship between the monarch and the papacy had evolved considerable independence from the papacy. The French monarchy had perhaps more authority over the Church in his country than any other prince in Western Christendom. This was further recognized on the eve of the Reformation by the Concordat of Bologna which confirmed Francis I's authority to make appointments to benefices. As a result, many of the conditions which led to the Reformation in Germany were less apparent than in Germany. The Concordot provided for the rights of both pope anf king, but made the king clearly dominant over the French Church.
While religious issues are most commonly discussed in connection with the Reformation, financial matters were a major concern at the time. The monarchy in France had enormous control over the disposition of the wealth and income of the French Church and routinely used the authority to appoint bishops, abbots, and other church officers to reward faithful followers because there was considerable income associated with many of these offices. As a result, the princes of the French Church included many worldly people, often uninterestred in spiritual or doctrinal matters, but quite nationalistic. The Pope had a veto on such appointments, but out of defference to the monarch, rarely exercized it. Thus there was a considerable fusion of church and state in France very diffeent than the situation in Germany.
The University of Paris (the Sorbonne) during the late Medieval era served as a kind of scholastic think-tank for both Church and state.
French Protestants became known as Huguenots. This term of unknown origins was used to describe French Protestants. The first use of the term occurred in court cases in which "heretics" (dissenters from the Roman Catholic Church) were procecuted (1550). There are various theories as to the origins of the term. It was at first a derisive term, but over time has come to be the name for a brave people resisting religious persecution.
Protestantism was first introduced into France sometime around 1520-23 only a few years after Martin Luthur nailed his 95 thesis on the church door in Germany (1519). As in Germany, Protestant principles were accepted by important members of the nobility and intelectual community as well as the middle class. The Protestants initially received some protection from royal circles, most notably from Queen Maragaret of Navarre who was the sister of Francis I. The percecution of the French Protestants began in the later years of Francis' reign and this was continued after his daeth by Henry II. While percecuting Protestants in France, both Francis and Henry for political reasons supported the growth of Protrstantism in Germany. The Protestant community in France, however, continued to grow. The French Reformed Church was formally established by John Calvin (1550). At the first national synod (council), 15 churches participated (1559). At the second synod over 2,000 churches participated (1561).
The growth of Protestantism in France was a shock to the French Catholic Church. It generated both fear and hatred among Catholics. A general edict encouraged the extermination of the Huguenots (1536).
There were not only religious questions, but as in Germany political questions as well. This expressed itself in the rivalry between the house of Valois, which possessed the throne and the house of Guise. Catherine de Médicis governened France in a regency for her son Charles IX. At times she sided with the Huguenots, but usually joined the Catholics against them. After Charles reached his majority he ininiated severe perceution.
The percecution and religious intolerance on the part of many Cathloics resulted in reprisals from the the Protestants. The result was a civil war in France. Catholics slew some 1,200 Huguenots at Vassy (1562). This ignited the the Wars of Religion which would last three decades and devestate the country.
There were eight outbreaks of fighting separated by formal peace treaties. There was open war, attrocities. brutal acys, assainations, trachery and other acts during the civil war (1562-98). The Huguenot forces were led by Louis I de Boubon Prince de Condé and Admiral Gaspard de Coligny and later Henry de Navarre (Henry IV). The Catholic forces were led by Duc de Guise (Henry I de Lorraine) and Catherine de Médicis and later by Henry III. As in Germany, foreign troops were involved in the fighting. Soldiers from England, Germany, and Switzerland. The Catholics were supported by primarily by Spain. The treaties that end the various outbreaks granted the huguenots various levels of toleration. Afterwards the French royal Government attempted to repudiate or ignore these pledges resulting in renewerd hostilities. The essential problem was both the intolerance of the time and the conviction on the part of Catholic monarchs that Protestants would not be loyal, fully trusted subjects.
The most notable attrocity of the civil wars was the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Catherine and her son Charles IX signed a peace traety with the Huguenots granting freedom of worship (1570). They made a point of maintaining friendly relations with Huguenot leaders, often calling de Coligny to court to seek his advise. Lulled into a sence of security, they were totally unprepared for what transpired. Catherine and Charles ordered a masacre of Huguenots in Paris and other French cities. The Duc fe Guise personally killed Coligny. More than 8 000 Huguenots, including Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, Governor of Picardy and leader and spokesman of the Huguenots, were murdered in Paris. The slaughter was conducted during the wedding of Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot, to Marguerite de Valois (daughter of Catherine de Medici). Thousands of Huguenots ame in the Paris to celebrate the hisoric wedding.
The Religious Wars including the eight outbreaks of violence occurred during the reign of Henry III who succeeded Charles IX. The Huguenots led by Henry of Navarre defeated the Catholic forces at Coutras (1587). The Huguenots were aided by infighting among the Catholics. The Duc de Guise was assainated by other Catholics (1588) as was Henry III himself (1589). With Henry's death the House of Valois became extinct and of all people, the Protestant laeder Henry of Navarre became king, the firsr monarch of the Bourbon line. To end the destructive civil wars, Henry converted to Catholocism (1593). He issued the Edict of Nantes granting almost complete religious freedom on the Protestants. With this freedom during the reign of Henry, the Protestants grew to be a major force in France. The Edict of Nantes was signed by Henry IV (1598).
This ended the Wars of Religion. Under the terms of the Edict, the Huguenots were permitted to freely practice their faith in 20 specified French "free" cities. France was again became united and a decade of peace followed. Henry IV was murdered (in 1610)
Louis XIII after the murder of Henry IV rose to the throne. He sought to create an absolutist monarchy and organized groups like the Hugeunots stood in his way. As a result, new persecutions were conducted and renewed fighting occurred. The campign to supress the Hugenots was conducted under the guidance of Cardinal Richelieu. He focused on the campaign against the Huguenots. Cardinal Richelieu broke the military power of the Huguenots when after a protracted seige, their major stronghod La Rochelle was finally taken (1628). He then attempted to conciliate the Protestants.
Louis XIV was even more committed to building an absolute monarchy. He is most famous for his statement, "I am the state." To this end, Louis ordered a mercilles percecution of the Huguenots, revoking the Edict of Nantes (1685). As a result of these percecutions life for many Protestants became intolerable in France. It was not just the lackm of religious freedoms, but many other matters. The state refused to recognize Protestant marriages leaving the children illegitimate. This affected property rights and inheritannces. Large numbers of Huguenots fled France, leaving for Switzerland, the Netherlands, England, and the English colonies in America (especially New York, Massachusetts, and South Carolina). As a result, many Americans of French ancestry are Protestants. (Except for the Huguenots few French people emmigrated to America. France is one of the few Europrean countries that dud not send large numbers of emmigrants to America.) No one knows precisely how many French Protestants emigrayed. Estimates range from 0.4-1.0 million. About 1.0 million Protestants remained in France. Many settled in the isolated Cévennes Mountains becoming known as the Camisards. Louis XIV ordered them removed, resulting in tghe Camisard War (1702-05).
The political and religious environment in France changed in the 18th century with the Enlightenment. Louis XV was not as addament on the issue as his grandfather Louis XIV, but he did issue and edict declaring marriages and baptoisms by Protestant ckerymen null and void.
Louis XVI reversed that edict and Protestantbmarriages were recognized as fully legal. Other rights were garnted to Protestants.
The Catholic Church had been a strong supporter of the monarchy and, as a result, there was a strong anti-clerical trend in the Revolution. Most of this was, however, directed at the Catholic Church.
Napoleon and Pope Pius VII signed a concordat recognizing Protestantism (Calvanism and Lutheranism), Catholocism, and Judaism as established religions deserving state support and subject to state control.
Later laws passed in the 19th century granted complete religious freedom in France. The French debated the proper role of church and state throughout the 19th century, but this debate primarily focused on the role of the Catholic Church. A law separting church and state was passed after the turn of the 20th century (1905). French Protestants are few in number, but have played an important role in French life, especially in law, education, and finance. Protestants have tended to have a liberal outlook on social issues.
The only major outbreak of religious intlolerance was the percecution of the Jews by the NAZIS and Vichy Government during the German World War II occupation of France. Today in France there is growing discussions about French muslims, mostly the descendents of immigrants from France's former North Africa colonies. This has emerged as a debate over the right of Muslem girls to wear head sacrves in state schools. Muslim families are now considering sending their girls to Catholic schools so that they can continue wearing head scarves.
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