Figure 1.--Panamanian dictator, Manuel Noriega, annulled the election that hhis hand-picked candiadte lost. Major Moisés Giroldi led a coup attempt to replace Noriega and allow Guillermo Endara whi=o won the election to assume the office (October 1989). Noriega had the coup pllotters including Giroldi tortured and sumarily killed. The Pananamanian press caption here read, "Adela Giroldi, extremne right, widow of coup leader Moisés Giroldi, watches television new about the American invasion. With Mrs. Giroldi are (from left) her sons Josué and Moises; Johnny Rueda, the son of another rebel officer killed in the coup; and her daughter Karina." The photograph is not dated, but would have been about December 20, 1989.
Columbus explored The Caribbean cost of Panama (1502). Balboa first crossed the Istmus to discover the Pacific, confirming that the Spanish had found a new continent and not Asia. Panama was critical to the Spanish colonial empire. It was the the principal trans-shipping point for transporting Peruvian gold and silver to the Caribbean to load the treasure fleets bringing the treasure to Spain. The Central Americans revolted against Spain (1821). Panama unlike the rest of Central America was joined with Colombia which was already an independent republic. This meant that the South American country included an small, but important part of Central America. There was, however no land contection. There were no roads through the rugged Dariéen Gap (Tapón del Darién). This did not prove a happy union and the Panamanians soon attempted to breakaway from Colombia. One historian calculates that between 1850-1900 Panama had 40 different administrations, because of unsettled conditions, both in Colombia and Panama. In Panama there were 50 important riots, 5 attempted secessions, and 13 U.S. interventions. We are not sure what all these interventions were. Panama continued to be important as a transhipnent point and until the United States built the transconintental railway, was the primary connection between the Eastern United States and California. Many gold seekers crossed the Istmas to reach California after gold was discovered (1849). After the construction of the Suez Canal, world attention turned to Panama. The French tried to build a canal, but the result was failure and a massive financial scandal. Then American President Theodore Roosevelt decided that a canal could and should be built. An American proposal for canal rights over the Isthmus was rejected by the Colombian Senate. Panamaians seized the opportunity, proclaimed their independence, and received U.S. support (1903). The new government signed a treaty with the United States. Panama granted the United States canal rights in perpetuity, The United States proceeeded to build the canal--one of the great engeneering achievements of the age. Roosevelt saw it as his most important achievement. Panama received $10 million and an annual payment of $0.25 million. The United States increased this to $0.43 million (1933) and $1.93 million (1955). The Canal Zone was a 10-mile-wide strip across the Isthmus. Nationalist feeling in Panama gradually agitated for control of the Canal. Gen. Omar Torrijos Herrera and President Jimmy Carter signed treaties giving Panama gradual control of the Canal (1977). They also phased out U.S. military bases. The Panamanian Government guaranteed the Canal's neutrality. Reacting to large-scale crinal activity, the United States invaded Pamama and deposed and arrested President Noriega (1989).
Pre-history
The pre-history of Panama is not well understood. The general assessment is that Amer-Indinas reached thevisthmus about 10,000 years ago, but this almost certainly is an underestimation. And anthropologists are currently revising the time-line for humans in the Americas, including Mexico to the north. The earliest artifacts found in are Paleo-Indians projectile points. Later arifacts hace been found in central Panama. The earliest pottery-making in the Americas, such as the Monagrillo cultures (2500–1700 BC). What is known definatively is that Ameri-Indins would have had to pass through Pananama or along the cost to reach South America. What is not known is if they transmitted the isthmu on foot or by small boats along the coast. It us know that they did not travel theough the Caribbean islands. The Caribbean islands were was population from the south (Orionoco area) not the north. Estimates vary widely as to the population of Amer-Indians in the isthmus area before the arrival of the Spanish. This is because the population was not an advanced civilizatiin and left very little in the way of aracheological evidence. Some reserachers are convinced that the population was substantially larger than that of modern Panama as high as 2 million people. Other estimates are more modest, but still subtantial. Some estimates suggests a population tion of 500,000 Amer-Indians from some 60 tribal groupings. Some estimates are as low as 200,000mpeople. Some er researchers believe that Cuna alone may have numbered some 750,000 prople. [Black and Flores] There is substantial evidencce that several dozen Amer-Indian groups including the Cuna, the Ngöbe-Buglé, the Emberá, the Wounaan and the Naso populated the isthmus at the time the Spamish arrived. Very little physical archaeological evidence of these peoples have been found. Ther low technological level and the destruction of their civilization are why there is such limited archaeological evidence.
Spanish Colonial Era 1500-1820)
Panama soon after discovery and Balaboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean became an internatiinal crissroads, but one which would be controlled by Spain and excludedfoereign trade. Columbus explored The Caribbean cost of Panama (1502). Balboa first crossed the Istmus to discover the Pacific Ocean. This was final vindication that the Spanish had found a new continent and not Asia. Panama would be critical to the Spanish colonial empire. It was the the principal trans-shipping point for transporting Peruvian gold and silver to the Caribbean so it could be loaded abord the the treasure fleets bringing the treasure to Spain. This also began when Rodrigo de Bastidas first discovered Panama what is now Pnama (1501). he had, however, not idea what was in the interior and that Panama was acxtually a nioarrows istmus and the vast Pacific Ocean was onlky a few miles from the Caribbean coast. Columbus also asiled along the Panammanian coast the following tear (1502). He alo had no idea an istmus existed. Lope de Orlando discovers the mouth of the Chagres River leading into the interior (1509). Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the isthmus and discovered the Pacific Ocean (1513). The Amer-Indians in Panama were poor and very primutive. Soon rumors began to circulate of a rich Amer-Indian empire to the south. Spanish Basque conquistador Pascual de Andagoya with 400 settlers founded Panama City, the first importabt Spanish city in the Pacufic (1519). This was the same time that Cortez to the north was conquering the Aztec Empire in Mexico. Franciscopo Pizarro obtained permissiomn from the Crown tp set off south to find the rich empire rumored to the south (1529). Pizarro folowing Cortez's sxcript seized the Inca Atalapa in Cajamarca =, Peru (1532). This led to the conquest of the Inca Empire in Mexico. When the riches of Peru were found, getting them to Spain was a difficult propsition. Emperor Charles V orders a survey to deterine if a canal caould be built across the isthmus (1534).
It was not. So the trasure had to be carried by shipo to the Istmus, accross the Istmus by pack animals, and then loaded on ships carrying it to Spain. The English Sea Dogs began preying on the Spanish trasure ships. And then the Panamanian settlements involved in the trade. Sir Francis Drake captured the town of Nombre de Dios and its treasure (1572). These attacks and religion led to the Spanish Armada (1588). As the Spanish failed to defeat the English, the attacks on the Spanush treasure shios and settlements continued. The French and Dutch also authorized privateers. Portobello was founded on the Caribbean coast was founded (1597). The Spanish built massive foets and the English attacl=ked them as well. The English Sea Dogs were privateers, essentially legalized piraates. But the Spanish treasure ships attracted illegal pirates as well. Pirate Henry Morgan looted Panama City (1671). The Spanish rebuilt the city (1673).
Wars of Independence
The Napoleonic Wars in Europe spread to the Iberian Pensinsula and both Portugal and Spain were conquied. This set off the Latin American wars for independence. Portugal and Spain could not retain their hold on the colmies and thanks to theBritish victory at Trafalgar (1805), neither could Napoleon. Spain could not send an army to the America, but there were royalists in the various countries so the Wars of independence took two decades to play out. The principal northern liberator was Simon Bolívar. He founded Gran Colombia which separated into Venezuela and Colombia. Bolívar nervr travelled to Panama, but saw its immene geographic imporrance. He expressedva desire for a canalmaccross the Istmus (1815).
Republic of New Granada/Colombia (1821-1903)
The Central Americans revolted against Spain (1821). Panama unlike the rest of Central America was joined Gran Colombia, which consisted of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela. Gran Colombia broke apart, but Panama remained. It became a province of New Granada (Colombia). This meant that the South American country included a small, but important part of Central America. There was, however no land contection. There were no roads through the rugged Darién Gap (Tapón del Darién). This did not prove a happy union and the Panamanians soon attempted to breakaway from Colombia. One historian calculates that between 1850-1900 Panama had 40 different administrations, because of unsettled conditions, both in Colombia and Panama. In Panama there were 50 important riots, 5 attempted secessions, and 13 U.S. interventions. We are not sure what all these interventions were. Panama continued to be important as a transhipnent point.
This was of primary concern to Pacufic Ciast Latin American countries and Britain. An expanding United States also began to take notice. President Andrew Jackson ordered a study on the feasibility of a canal (1835). As America expanded so did interest in a canal. Until the United States built the transconintental railway, Panama would be the primary connection between the Eastern United States and California. Many gold seekers crossed the Istmas to reach California after gold was discovered (1849). After the Mexican American War, Ulysses S. Grant led a small military force through Pananma with tgeir dependants en route to California, now American territory (1852). Colombia had a civil war -- The War of the Thousand Days (1899-1902).
Panama Canal (1903-14)
A canal cross the Istmus was betond the technological capability of the mid-19th century, but a railroad was not. The
Panama Railroad would play a significant role in the building of the Panama Canal during both the French and American projects. The Railway transported workers, equipment, goods to work sites and carried off miles of spoil from the construction sites. The Panama Railway was an American project and built at a time that there was not terrestrial connection with Colombia.
Businessmen William Henry Aspinwall, John L. Stephens, and Henry Chauncy form the Panama Railroad Company and obtain rights to build a railroad across the isthmus from the government of New Granada (Colombia) (1845). It becomes the first transcontinental railroad in the world, although a very short one. Laborers came from China, East Indies, Ireland, England, Germany and Jamaica to build the railroad. The Panama Railroad was incorporated in New York and in a event of unbelievable serendipity, gold was discovered in California (1849). Suddentky thousands of people wanted to cross the Istmus to get to California. Construction began around Monkey Hill which was remamed Mount Hope (1850). The Railroad was completed (1855). The Fort Nomers 49ers had to make the crossing on foot. But the journey between the East Coast and Califirnia was shortened by months. It was not cheap--the passage one way was $25 paid in gold, over an ounce. The railway became very important to the United Stares, especially before a much logner Trans-Continental Railway was built. The Panama Railroad was Amrrica's - he primary commercial contact with California. During the Ameican Civil War, troops and material was transported west and gold moved east (1861-65). The U.S. transcontinental railroad was finally completed (1869). The Panama rail contract was renegotiated (1875). The Compamy paid $1 million in gold plus $250,000 a year during the life of the contract (99 years). The railroad extends its line into the Bay of Panama so that deepwater ships could reach its wharves. The Railroad agreed to transport Colombian mail, officials, and troops free of charge.
After the construction of the Suez Canal promoted by the Frenchman Ferdinad Delesseps (1869), world attention turned to Panama. The French again promoted by Delesseps tried to build a canal across Panaama. The French Canal Company bought a controlling interest in the Panama Railroad Company (1881) and employed the railroad during their digging operations. The result, however, was huge failure and a massive financial scandal (1880s).
American President Theodore Roosevelt who had studieD naval history and sea power decided that a canal could and should be built. An American proposal for canal rights over the Isthmus was rejected by the Colombian Senate. Panamaians seized the opportunity, proclaimed their independence, and received U.S. support (1903). The new Panamanian government signed a treaty with the United States. Panama granted the United States canal rights in perpetuity.
The United States Government purchases thePanama Railroad from the French (1904). Tey rebuilt it on higher ground and with a heavier gage line. The Railroad was critical in the building operations. Some 200 loads of dirt and rubble was removed every day from the digging sites. The railroad also transports materials and labor. In addition, the trains serve as sleeping quarters for workers and pay cars. Railroad inmocations were invented, including the rail shifter and the dirt spreader.
The United States succeded in building the canal--one of the great engeneering achievements of the age. A huge force of workers was needed. Migrant workers were brought to Panama from many different mostly Caribbean countries. Many died of diseases like yellow fever. President Roosevelt saw it as his most important achievement. The Cnal was opened days after outbreak of World War I (August 1914). Panama received $10 million and an annual payment of $0.25 million. The United States increased this to $0.43 million (1933) and $1.93 million (1955). The Canal Zone was a 10-mile-wide strip across the Isthmus.
Republic of Panama (1903- )
A new treaty between the Panama and the United States was signed (1936). Itbwas part of President Roosevelt's Goo Neighnor Policy. After World War, Panamanian nationalists began to agitate over the Canal Zone. Sverignity became a major issue. Studentbriots broke out (January 1964).l Sone 20 people were killed. January 9 is now celevrated as Martyrs Day in Panama.
A military coup led by General Omar Torrijos overthrew the elected president, Arnulfo Arias (1968). He succeeded in persuading U.S.President Carter to sign a treaty which gave Panama control over the Canal (1977). Complete control was to be achieved by December 31, 1999. They United States began phasing out U.S. military bases. The Panamanian Government guaranteed the Canal's neutrality. This made Torrijos the country's most popular president. Torrijos was killed in a plane crash (1981). He was replaced by another militarynman -- Manuel Noriega (1983). Noriega turned to repressive rule and became deeply involved in drug traficking. Relations with the United States deteriorated. The United Sttates imposed economic sanctions (1987). Noriega was indicted on drugs charges in the United States (1988). Presidential elections were held in Panama (May 1989). Guillermo Endara, a leading opponent of the Noriega military dictatorship, won the election, by a 3-to-1 margin. Noriega annulled the results. When Endra and asociates protested, they were badly baeten an incidentbphotographed bny the international mmedia.
Panamanian Defense Force Major Moisés Giroldi led a coup to oust Noreiega and restore President-Elect Endara (October 1989). He arrested Noriega, but the coup failed. Giroldi and nine other members of the Panamanian Defense Forces, werevsumarily executed. An eleventh participant died in prison after being tortured. These events are known as the 'Albrook massacre'. Noreiga began reprisals against relatives of the coup plotters. Their houses were raided and ransacked and they received eviction notices. After attacks on U.S. military personnel, President George Bush ordered an invasion (December 1989). The Panamanian Defense Force was capable of terrorizing unarmed civilians, but not the United States military. Noriega took refuge in the Vatican Embassy. He was subsequently captured (January 1990). President-elect Guillermo Endara was able to assume office. He was a colorful figure. He was heavily over weight. He divorsed his long term wife and and maried a very young and beautiful Chinese woman. The press had fun with him, giving him the nick bame of 'gordo feliz' (happy fatty). Anf he wwas not imune from coruption. His young wife surprisingly won the National Lottery. Shevrefused dinatiins to charity. What everbhis imperfectiins, hne did not mussel the press or arrst and torture political opponents. And since his presidency, Panama has had uninterupted democratic elections. Ernesto Perez Balladares won the next election (1994). Mireya Moscoso became the first female president of Panama (1999). In the same year, the Canal Zone was fomerly transferred to Panamanian soverignity. President Juan Carlos Varela announced the construction of a monolith memorial in memory of Major Giroldi and the other Albrook victims. The monolith and plaque was unveiled (October 20160.
Sources
Black, Jan Knippers and Edmundo Flores. "Historical Setting". A Country Study: Panama (Library of Congress Federal Research Division: December 1987).
