Figure 1.--This is a fresco from the synagogue ruins in Dura Europos, Syria. It is dated 244-255 AD.
The fresco shows the story of baby Moses saved from Nile. "Now a man of the tribe of Levi married a Levite woman, and she became pregnant and gave birth to a son. When she saw that he was a fine child, she hid him for three months. But when she could hide him no longer, she got a papyrus basket for him and coated it with tar and pitch. Then she placed the child in it and put it among the reeds along the bank of the Nile. His sister stood at a distance to see what would happen to him. Then Pharaoh’s daughter went down to the Nile to bathe, and her attendants were walking along the riverbank. She saw the basket among the reeds and sent her female slave to get it. She opened it and saw the baby. He was crying, and she felt sorry for him. 'This is one of the Hebrew babies,' she said." [Exodus 2:1-6] We have a 3rd century viewnof Romamuzed Jews, their clothings and bathing habits. The slave woman is diving in the Nile with no clothing on. Until Rome acqired Palestine, few Jews lived outside the Levant. Even After Palestine was added to the empire, Jews mostly lived in the Levant. This only changed with the Roman supression of the Jewish Revolt and the ensuing expullsion and Diaspora. There is not a lot of archaeological evidence during this period. A rare exception is a synagogue and less impressive Christian house church. Dura-Europos was a Roman oupost in what is now eastern Syria. As the Romnan only controlled the area for about a century (160s-250s AD), we know roughly when the Synagoguie functioned. It is the best preserved of the many ancient synagogues of that era that have been found by archaeologists. It had a forecourt and house of assembly with frescoed walls depicting many important Old Testament scenes. This is somewaht surprising given Totah teachings about phyical depictiins. As far as we know this was unusual, but there are few well presered ancient synagogues from this period to compare it with. The Torah reads, "You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them" [Exodus 20:4-5]. Areader vtells us, "In the Jewish tradition there ar no paintings. Anyway there are two exceptions. The book of Haggadah (Passover) and the book of Esther (Purim) have illustrations for children. In the synagogues usually there are no paintings."
Little information exists on Jews in Rome during the Republic. Archeologists have found a bronze column in Ankara which confirms that the Emperor Augustus recognized the Jews of Asia Minor as an acceptable religious community. Despite the supression of the Jewish Revolt and the exile of the Jews, Roman emperors recognized Judiasm as a legal religion. Jewish communities were established throughout the Roman Empire after the failure of the Jewish revolt and the Roman supression of the Jews. Several of the communities were established in Anatolia (often referred to as Asia Minor). Other Jewish communities were esablished in the Balkans and Levant. Early Christians often emerged out of these Jewish communities. Recognition of the Jews was a status not conferred on the Christians, at first seen as a Jewish sect. Roman emperors to varying degrees supressed the Christians. The situation of the Jews changed with the assent of Constantine (4th century AD). Roman general Constantine seized control of the Empire and converted to Christianity. Gradually after his conversion, Christianity changed from a supressed sect to the state religion of the Empire. Relations between Jews and Christians had varied. Some Jews (like Paul) attempted to supress the Christians, but eventually more benign relations developed. This began to change when Christianity became the state religion. Christian emperors began to look on the Jews as subversive for their refusal to accept Jesus as the Messiah. In addition, Christians thanks to St. Paul became a gentile religion. Thus Christians begn to see the Jews as a foreign group in thei midst. Many Church and state officials wanted to force the Jews to convert. St Augustine argued for a different approach. Augustine argued that the Jews should not be killed or even forced to convert. Rather he felt that they should be degraded and humiliated and live in poverty. This would be a just punishment for refusing to accept Christ. While Augustine's assessment is today seen as harsh and unjust, his influence probably saved the Jews from total annihilation in Western Christendom. With the fall of Rome (5th century), this was the view of the Jews that became prevalebnt in feudal Europe. Despite the influence of Augustine, Christian treatment of the Jews was relatively benign in the early Feudal period.
The Canaanites are a kind of ethnic catch-all term covering many indigenous populations, both settled and nomadic-pastoral groups. They are thevpeople who populated the southern Levant or Canaan--the Jewish promised land. Canaanite is by far the most frequently used ethnic term in the Bible. The central/ message of the Bible is that the Hebrews are an invading people to whom God granted Canaan as the Promised Land. Some scholars see this a Jewish mygtholgy withoutba historical basis except as justification for the conquet of Canan. The Hebrews were one of the competing Cananite tribes or perhaps an amalgum of Canaatie groups. The Canaanites are often largely ignored in ancient histories which focus on great civilization, ujsually monumental builders, like Egypt, the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hittities, Persinas, and others. Canan was commoinly the battle griound where northern people of the Fertile Cressent fought it out with thr Egyptians. One of the first battles recorded in detail was fought there--Kadesh (1274 BC). The Canaanites were not great builders . They were not a might warrior people, but rather relatively primitive tribes, many nomadic herders, caught between the mighty empires of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Yet it is now believed that it was the Canaanites who made the most important invention of humanity--the invention of nothing less than the modern Alphabet. Unlike writing, this appears to have occured once and in only one place. Canaanites who spoke a Semitic language (Proto-Semitic) were working for Egyptian miners. They apparently repurposed Egyptian hieroglyphs to construct a different simpler alphabetic script. [Albright] This script has been found in a small corpus of inscription at Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai Peninsula dating to the Middle Bronze Age (2100–1500 BC). The Egyptians were mining turquoise, a blue-green mineral highly prised by the Egyptians and used by their artisans and used in their stunning creations. The alphabet was not just a minor change in the historian of writing. It was the crucial step in making the written word accessable to mankiknd. Hieroglyphs was writing, but it was complicated anf required years of study to master. An alphabetic script was so simple that it could be mastered by virtually any one includung children beginning about the age if 6 years. It was nothing less tha the democritization of writing. And it id fascinating that it was the work of the Canaanites not one of the great ancient civilizatins. And it was spread by a Canaanite people--the r Phoenicians. It is also interesting that one of the Canaanite tribes the Hebrews gave rise to Judaism and the Jews. The modern people more associated with learning and education than any other people.
Babylon
Persia
ased on physical evidence, there has been a Jewish community in the Agean and Anatolia since the 4th century BC. The best known evidence of Jewish life comes from the city of Sardis. Historians disagree as to the nature of Jewish settleent. Some historians think that these Jewish communities may have been composed primarilty of merchants and other trasients.
Helleniustic Greek Era
The Hellenistic (Greek-like) period begins with Greek cictories over Darias and the Persian armies. This led to the arrival of Alexander the Great in the Near East including the Levant (334 BC). This was, however, not the beginning of Greek influence. Greek influences touched the region earlier (14th century BC). The Greeks were a mix of traders and pirates. And with widening trade connections increased, Greek influences expanded. Hellenism had a lasting impact on Judaism and the Jewish people. Hellenism was a synthesis of Greek (Hellenic) culture with the indigenous cultures of the Near East. It was a dynamic phenomenon. Not only was Hellenistic culture continually evolving, but many induenous civilizatiins also evolved, coming and going. [Schiffman]
Roman Republic
Little information exists on Jews in Rome during the Republic. Until the Romans achieved control over Palestine, itvis unlikely that many Jews lived within the Empire. This is not necesarily theccase for the Empire, especially eastern areas of tge Empire. Palestine was part of the Hellenistic world. This included Greece, Anatolia, and the Levaht. These were areas gradually conquered by Rome and thus some Jews were briughtvunto the Empire.nn
Palestine
Disputes between Jewish leaders led to them calling in the Romans to adjudicate the dispute. Of course once in Palestine they stayed. Rome armies defeat Antiochus III (190-188 BC). Judas Maccabaeus staged a revolt (161-160 BC). (Another source dates the Maccabean War to 175 BC.) The Hasmonean Kingdom is established (142 BC). Rome gained control over the Hadsmonean Kingdom (63 BC). The oro-Roman Herod the Freat rules as King of Judaea (40-4 BC). Herod commenced on an enormous buolding campaign. Rome appointed a proculator of Judaea (6 AD).
Early Imperial Period
There are New Testament references to Jewish communities in Anatolia. A synagogue was reported at Icononium (Konya). [Acts 14:1] Ephesus also had a synagogue. [Acts 19:1] St. Paul in his Epistle to the Ephesians mentions a Jewish community. His Epistle to the Galatians also mentions a Jewish population. Archeologists have found a bronze column in Ankara which confirms that the Emperor Augustus recognized the Jews of Asia Minor as an acceptable religious community. Despite the supression of the Jewish Revolt and the exile of the Jews, Roman emperors recognized Judiasm as a legal religion.
Roman rule in Judea became increasingly oppresive. Disident Jews launched a major revolt. The Roman Legions after beuing reinforced crushed the rebellion, although it took them several years, aurprising matter as Judea was a relatively small area. It is believed that the Dead Sea Scrollsere hidden from the Romans at this time.
Emperor Titus [military commander/later emperor?] ordered in reinforcements and a harsh treatmernt of the rebels and their supporters. The Romans sacked Jerusalem and burned the Second Temple. The Temple Wall in Jerusalem today is all thjat remains of the Second Temple. Many Jews fled. Others were enslaved by the Romans and sold throughout the Empire. This is the beginning of the Jewish Disapora. Much of what we know of the Revolt and Roman supression of the Revolt comes from the writings of Flavius Josephus (c38 AD- ). He was an importnt Pharisee, but a Roman citizen with connections in the Imperial court. His seven-volume masterpiece is an early historical masterpiece. [Josephus]
The Jewish Diaspora began with Assyrian conquest when Jew from Israel were exiled (8th century BC). These exiles are lost to history--The Lost Tribes of Israel. As a result, many histories of the Diaspora begin with the Babylonian conquest (6th century BC). Many Jews at the time came to saw their exile as a punishment for their sins and came to believe that they would be unable to return to their land unless God redeemed by sending a Messiah. Some of the Jews taken to Babylon survived and thanks to Cyrus the Great, eventually retuned to Palestine. Another dispersal was conducted by the Romans. The Romans suppressed Jewish revolts and destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem (1st century AD). The Romans slaughtered and enslaved the Jews. Survivors spread throughout the Roman world, the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. This is today known as the Disapora. Over time as the Jews moved into distant lands and memories of Palestine were lost, Jewish scholars came to redefine exile from a geographic sence to separation from God. The Diaspora which began with the Babylonian Captivity spread the Jews east. The Roman supresion of the Jews spread them into the wider Empire, meaning primarily west. The extrodinary aspect of the Diaspora is that it did not destroy the Jews as a people. They did not like so many other conquered peoples disappear from history. While dispersed, the Jews refused to abandon their faith and assimilate. Jews since the Diaspora have lived in separate, often small religious community living among Gentiles--for the most part, Christian and Islamic majorities. There are two great traditions of European Jews. The Ashkenazi (meaning German) are Eastern European Jews with traditions in some cases dateing back to Roman times. The Sephardic (meaning Spanish) Jews are Western European Jews with roots to the tolerant Omayyid Caliph of southern Spain. Their intelectual tradition developed in an atmosphere of toleration of the People of the Book. This was the Sephardic Golden Age . King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella after the completion of the Reconqujista with the fall of Granada expelled the Jews (1492). The Sephardi carried this tradition with them to the other areas of Western Europe and the Ottoman Empire which accepted them. [Perera] The various Jewish communites of the Diaspora interacted to varying degrees with the local culture. The Jews of the Diaspora developed remarkably diverse cultural lives as well as religious outlooks.
Jews and Early Christians
Christianity appeared first from the Jesus Movement within Judaism. Although suppresed in Palestine. Judaism was a recognized religion under Roman law. Christianity was seen as a superstitious cult. Paul (c5-64/67 AD) of course at first tried to supress the Christians, but on the road to Damascus had a vision and became a major force spreading Christianity among the gentiles. Roman emperors to varying degrees supressed the Christians, but after the supression of Jewish Revolt andcexpiulsiom (66-70) not the Jews jn the wider Empire. A rare insight into a Jewsish community comes from Dura-Europos. This nwas was a Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman border city built on an escarpment above the right bank of the Euphrates River. The Romans decisively captured Dura-Europos (165 AD} and expanded it. The city greatly enlarged, turning it into annimortant stronghold in Mesopotamia--the easternmost extension of the Empire. It fell to the Sasanian Empire (256–57 AD). It was then abandoned, meaning that the remains of the city were well preserved. This included the synagogue, a rare treasure as so few synagogues survive in the same state of preservation. Here we seen a fresco from a synagogue in Dura Europos in what is now eastern Syria (figure 1). In addition to the historical and artistic value, the frescos also show how people dressed at the time. (The frescos depict historical times, but in contemporary clothing.) In addition to the synagogue there was also a church, a house church. It is the earliest identified Christian house church. As a persecuted cult, the Christians were in no position to build churches. This house chuch is one of the earliest known Christian churches. A house church was normal domestic home converted for unobtrusive worship (233-56). Notably it is less well known, smaller, and more modestly decorated than the synagogue in the city. There are, hiwever, some similarities--shoiwing the commin orifins and indluences of classical cuvilizatiin within which they existed. Tragically the site is believed to have been destroyed by Isis.
The situation of the Jews changed with the assent of Constantine (4th century AD). Roman general Constantine seized control of the Empire and converted to Christianity. Gradually after his conversion, Christianity changed from a supressed sect to the state religion of the Empire. Relations between Jews and Christians had varied.The begin relations between Jews and Christians began to change after Christianity became the state religion. Christian emperors began to look on the Jews as subversive for their refusal to accept Jesus as the Messiah. In addition, Christians thanks to St. Paul became a gentile religion. Thus Christians begn to see the Jews as a foreign group in thei midst. Many Church and state officials wanted to force the Jews to convert. St Augustine argued for a different approach. Augustine argued that the Jews should not be killed or even forced to convert. Rather he felt that they should be degraded and humiliated and live in poverty. This would be a just punishment for refusing to accept Christ. While Augustine's assessment is today seen as harsh and unjust, his influence probably saved the Jews from total annihilation in Western Christendom. With the fall of Rome (5th century), this was the view of the Jews that became prevalebnt in feudal Europe. Despite the influence of Augustine, Christian treatment of the Jews was relatively benign in the early Feudal period.
Sources
Albright, William F. The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions and their Decipherment (1966).
Josephus, Flavius. The Jewish War.
Perera, Victor. The Cross and the Pear Tree.
Schiffma, Lawrence. From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple Rabbinic Judaism
