Figure 1.--As the Japanese militarists seized control of the Government and began to move toward war, the military began to use school children as props in patriotic displays with bots and girls displaying. Boys this age had military training as part of the school curriculum. Army personnel were assigned to the schools to oversee the training. Girls did not receive military training until late in the War as part of the Ketsugo program--a kind of child Kamakazze effort. They were drafted for war work.

Japan was different than the other totalitarian powers. There was no Communist or Fascist polititical party driving expanionism and racism and promoting war--the thrust for these policies came from the military. The Japanese military, especially the junior officers, came to largely reject liberal democracy with its squabling political parties that were prone to restrict military budgets. Elements in the military increasingly advocated action to control Communist agitation, expanded arms spending, and expantionist policies to secure markets and raw materials. The focus of expanionist policies was initially on China. Industrial and financial leaders continued to profit by close ties to to politicians and bureaucrats. The military was considered "clean" in terms of political corruption, and elements within the army were determined to take direct action to eliminate the perceived threats to Japan created by the weaknesses of liberal democracy and political corruption. One of the most important of the Army factions was the Imperial Way Faction (皇道派, Kōdōha). It became influential in the 1920s. Many junior officers ascriped to Kōdōha and came to think that the military should set up a totalitarian government that would pursue militarist and expansionist policies. This was in part a reaction to the social unrest and rising Communist influence in labor unions. Kōdōha was never organized as a political party, but its ideas were widely accepted throughout the Army. The founders of the Kōdōha faction were Sadao Araki and his protégé Jinzaburō Masaki. A more moderation faction developed within the Army--Tōseiha. It was notable primarily to the opposition to Kōdōha. Actually Tōseiha accepted many Kōdōha goals such as the need to expand and acquire natural resources. Tōseiha saw that expantionism would require morecthan than the military, but government beaureacracy, politicans, and industrial leaders. Some of the Kōdōha/Tōseiha split would be recflected in the subsequent Strike North/South debate. In Japan rather than a totalitarian political party seizing control of the state and military, it was the military, especially the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) that seized control of the state and abolisghed political parties. And like Hitler, the Japanese militarists reached the conclusion that that expansion of their small empire (Formosa and Korea) through military conquest would solve the country's economic problems. Japan had a parlimentary system controlled by conservative parties. The militarists began to grown in power after Wiorld War I when some Pacific Island gfoups were added to the Empire. Vut what the Japanese wanrted was China and furing the war the cvilian governmen issued the 21 Demands on the new Chinese Republic (1915). Conservative elements in the military was disappointed when civilian governments did not pursue these demands with more vigor. And they were outraged when the Government did not achieve parity with the United States at the Washington Naval Talks (1921). Actually the talks assisted Japan in achieving naval dominance in the OPacific becaue they restructed American naval contruction while Japan did not have the industrial capacity to build at a greater rate than she did. Secret socities in the military, especially the Army advocated military expansion and expoused xeophoniv nationalist and racial ideas. Civilian politicans who attempted to resist them were assainated. These ideas gained even more support with the onset of the Great Depression (1930s). The militarists, most without any academic training in economics, insisted that the rapid growth of Japan’s population to support industrialization had created a national crisis. The population of 65 million could not be fed from te ciuntry agricultural sector. Food had to be imported. And to pay for those imports, Japan had to have secure export markets. Western countries had as a result of the Depression increased tariffs and limited exports. The militarists saw China with its large population and agrucultural production as the answer to Japan's problems. And the militarists saw the country's political parties and parlimentary government failing to pursue these policies. As a result of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan obtained the Kwantung Leased Territory and the areas adjacent to the South Manchurian Railway. Manchuria remained a part of China, but these cincessions gave the Japanese a major role in the economy. Kwantung means 'east of Shanhaiguan', a strategic pass and entance of the Great all, east of which lies Manchuria. The Japanese Army established the Kwantung Garrison (1906), it was gradually expanded into the Kwantung Army (KA). Radical expanionist policies popuklar in the IJA were especially strong within the KA. The KA became the largest and most prestigious command in the IJA. Many of its top personnel, such as Chiefs of Staff Seishirō Itagaki and Hideki Tōjō were promoted to high positions in both the military and civil government during the 1930s. Military officers were appointed to important government positions. The impetus for expanion came from the Kwantung Army, both the seizure of Manchuria (1931) and the invasion of China (1937). By the late 1930s, the military not only controlled the Government, but military officers were appointed to the major ministries. General Tōjō became prime minister. From these positions, the militarists were able to dominate Japanese society through control of the press and schools. The Japanese Army military police, Kempeitai, expanded to assume the role of a secret police in Japanese civilian life, rather like the German Gestapo to supess any civilain discent.

Political Role of the Military

Japan was different than the other totalitarian powers. There was no Communist or Fascist polititical party driving expanionism and racism and promoting war--the thrust for these policies came from the military. The Japanese military, especially the junior officers, came to largely reject liberal democracy with its squabling political parties that were prone to restrict military budgets. Elements in the military increasingly advocated action to control Communist agitation, expanded arms spending, and expantionist policies to secure markets and raw materials.

Bushido

The Japanese military code was based on Bushido--unwavering allegiance to Feudal masters converted to Emperor and country. Bushido originated as the ethical code of Japan's medieval Samurai warriors. The central theme was unquestioning loyalty to their Feudal Daimyo (大名) or Feudal master -- an unquestioning obedience in all matters. Bushido has been likened to European chivalry --the ethical code of medieval knights. And there was a great deal of similarity. We note some objections to this with authors maintaining differences. First of all we have to understand that despite the legends that both Samurai and Knights in reality were more like armed thugs brutally treating the common people and defeated opponents. The major difference we see in moderating force of Western Christianity. Of course this also can be overstated. The Christian knights that fought the Crusades committed terrible atrocities. But this was a brutal age and Muslim forces were hardly the soul of the code of tolerance. justice, and mercy. But over time, Christianity moderated and channeled overall Western society in a more humane direction. This did not occur in Japan. Some Japanese authors contend that classic Bushido placed an emphasis on compassion, benevolence, and other non-martial qualities. his of course is how Western chivalry came to be viewed. There appear to be eight principal qualities emphasized by Bushido. they include: 1) Justice, 2) Courage, 3) Mercy, 4) Politeness, 5) Honesty, 6) Honor, 7) Loyalty, and 8) Self Control. Bushido was based on a belief in an absolute, universal moral code. Now we can question how close this came to the behavior of actual Samurai warriors came during the medieval and modern era. We believe that Western society developed in a more positive direction than Japanese society. This can be debated, but what can not be questioned is the fact that the Japanese military in the Meiji Era seized upon Bushido and its code and eventually fashioned it in its own image, not only as a code for the military itself, but after sizing control of the nation (1930s), imposed Bushido on the population nation as whole. The military retained many aspects of Bushido (Courage, Honor, and Loyalty), but displaced or reduced many other features (Justice, Mercy, Politeness, Honesty, and Self Control). Especially lacking was any degree of Mercy. What is observable is the difference between the behavior if the Japanese Army in previous wars. There were in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) and World War I (1914-18) none of the atrocities reported during World War II. A factor had to be like the NAZIs that they had won the War and there would be no post-war accounting. The military leaders built a code of suicide to a an unprecedented degree never held as part of Bushido. Here the idea was that the military spirit of the Japanese soldier could overcome the material superiority of the pleasure loving Americans. In the run up to World War II, Japan's military leaders sought to inculcate the entire Japanese nation with this ethos of Samurai warriors including women and children. And as the war began to turn and battlefield losses mounted, the militarists began training women and children for Ketsugo. So it is not surprising that large numbers of young men were willing to sacrifice themselves as well as Japanese civilians on Saipan and Okinawa. and the assumption as in the case of the NAZIs that the War was won and Japan would never have to answer for the atrocities committed. In fact Japan as a nation has never come to terms with the atrocities committed by the Imperial army in its name.

Focus on China

The focus of expanionist policies was initially on China. China was Japan's first target. They launched the Sino-Japanese War. largely over who was going to control Korea, notbober control mof China. Japan's objectives in China sreadingf=grew. China had much of what Japan wanted. Itboffered the rice need to feed the popukation. ndvtherevwas arahgeof batural resoyrces. And China offered a huge market for Japanese exports.nnChina did not, however, offer oil. Here Japan was dependent on imorts from America.

Clean Image

The Japanese militarty had acquired huge prestige. The military in addition Industrial and financial leaders continued to profit by close ties to to politicians and bureaucrats. The military was considered "clean" in terms of political corruption.

Expantionist Mission

The military adopted a mission that they were never assigned. Elements within the army were determined to take direct action to eliminate the perceived threats to Japan created by the weaknesses of liberal democracy and political corruption. One of the most important of the Army factions was the Imperial Way Faction (皇道派, Kōdōha). It became influential in the 1920s. Many junior officers ascriped to Kōdōha and came to think that the military should set up a totalitarian government that would pursue militarist and expansionist policies. This was in part a reaction to the social unrest and rising Communist influence in labor unions. Kōdōha was never organized as a political party, but its ideas were widely accepted throughout the Army. The founders of the Kōdōha faction were Sadao Araki and his protégé Jinzaburō Masaki. A more moderate faction developed within the Army--Tōseiha. It was notable primarily to the opposition to Kōdōha. Actually Tōseiha accepted many Kōdōha goals such as the need to expand and acquire natural resources. Tōseiha saw that expantionism would require more than than the military, but government beaureacracy, politicans, and industrial leaders. Some of the Kōdōha/Tōseiha split would be recflected in the subsequent Strike North/South debate. In Japan rather than a totalitarian political party seizing control of the state and military, it was the military, especially the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) that seized control of the state and abolisghed political parties. And like Hitler, the Japanese militarists reached the conclusion that that expansion of their small empire (Formosa and Korea) through military conquest would solve the country's economic problems. Japan had a parlimentary system controlled by conservative parties.

Post-World War I Disappointment

Japan joined the Allies in World War II. The militarists began to grown in power after World War I. The League id Nations awarded Japan a Trusteeship over some former foirner German Pacific Island groups whuch Japan essentially added to their empire. But what the Japanese exoanionists wanted was China. During the War the cvilian governmen issued the 21 Demands on the new Chinese Republic (1915). Conservative elements in the military were disappointed when the civilian governments did not pursue these demands with more vigor. And they were outraged when the Government did not achieve parity with the United States at the Washington Naval Talks (1921). Actually the talks assisted Japan in achieving naval dominance in the OPacific becaue they restructed American naval contruction while Japan did not have the industrial capacity to build at a greater rate than she did.

The Depression

These xhenephobic/expantionist ideas gained even more support with the onset of the Great Depression (1930s). The militarists, most without any academic training in economics, insisted that the rapid growth of Japan’s population to support industrialization had created a national crisis. The population of 65 million could not be fed from the country's agricultural sector. Food had to be imported. And to pay for those imports, Japan had to have secure export markets. Western countries had as a result of the Depression increased tariffs and imports declined. The militarists saw China with its large population and agrucultural production as the answer to Japan's problems. And the militarists saw the country's political parties and parlimentary government failing to pursue these policies.

Kwantung Army

As a result of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan obtained the Kwantung Leased Territory and the areas adjacent to the South Manchurian Railway. Manchuria remained a part of China, but these concessions gave the Japanese a major role in the economy. Kwantung means 'east of Shanhaiguan', a strategic pass and entance of the Great all, east of which lies Manchuria. The Japanese Army established the Kwantung Garrison (1906), it was gradually expanded into the Kwantung Army (KA). Radical expanionist policies popullar in the IJA were especially strong within the KA. The KA became the largest and most prestigious command in the IJA. Many of its top personnel, such as Chiefs of Staff Seishirō Itagaki and Hideki Tōjō were promoted to high positions in both the military and civil government during the 1930s. Military officers were appointed to important government positions. The impetus for expanion came from the Kwantung Army, both the seizure of Manchuria (1931) and the invasion of China proper (1937).

Government by Assaination (1930s)

Secret socities in the military, both the aemt and Navy,advocated military expansion and expoused xeophoniv nationalist and racial ideas. They turnd toasasinationam as a political tool. It became very dangerius to resist them. Civilian politicans who attempted to resist them were simply assainatedby throughly indicr=trinated cadets and young officers. This inckuded major coup attempts. The League of Blood incident (五・一五事件, Goichigo Jiken) pt May 15 Incident involved the assaination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi a part of a coup d'état (May 15, 1932). Reactionary elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy with help from Imperial Japanese Army cadets along with civilian remnants of the ultra nationalist League of Blood. The Prime Minister was assassinated by 11 naval officers. They werearrested and tried, but like Hitler's Beer Hall Putch, the trial gave them a platform to voice their natioinalist ideas and they battracted popular support. The result was a very light sentences. The result was a strengthening of Japanese militarism and a weakening of parlimentary democracy and the rule of law. . This was followed 4 years later by 2-26 or February 26 Incident (二・二六事件, Ni-Ni Roku Jiken), another attempted coup d'état (February 26, 1936). Hernthe coup attempt was launched by youyjhful revels in the Imperial Japanese Army officers. It v was a nuch broader effort, seeking to purge not only the country's civilian leadership, but also the military leadership of factional rivals and ideological opponents. This time they assainated several leading officials (among them two former prime ministers) and occupying the government center of Tokyo. They failed, however, to get to Prime Minister Keisuke Okada or gain control of the Emperor and Imperial Palace. Army supporters attempted to gain control of the Government. They failed, largely because of divisions within the military anf theEmperor's support bof the Givernment. Fespite vthe bblood letting, they failed to change the Government. The rebels were forced to surrender (February 29). This time therevwould be real conseqyenbces for the vrevels, pe=robably because they had targeted Army commanders and attemotedtonseize the Palace. There were a series of series of closed trials, affording the coup leaders no platformn to express their ideas. The result was the execution of 19 rebel leaders prison terms for 40 others. The important Kōdō-ha faction ceasedvto ne va najor influence within the Army, This ended rge era of 'government by assassination'. Radical ekemebts were not rooted out. It had been the Army sehnior leadership that has defeated the revels and was now in control of the civilian Goverment. No major civilain official or the vEmperor would dare challrngevthem for a decade.

Control of the Government

The Japanese military by the late-1930s was no longer content to influence the Governent, They ac=tually demanded and obtained appointment to the major ministries and not just the milirary ministries (War and the Navy). This gave them actual total control of the Government. General Tōjō was appointed prime minister (October 1941). Two months later Japan attacked Pearl Harbor launching the Pacific War. From these positions, the militarists were able to completely dominate Japanese society through control of the press and schools. The Japanese Army military police, the Kempeitai was expanded to assume the the role of a secret police in Japanese civilian life, rather like the German Gestapo to supess any civilain discent. The Japanese military Government was different than the other totalitarian powers that launched the War (NAZI Germany, Fascist Italy, and the SovietbUnion). Thedecisiins fiorvwar was made by one person (Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin). There was no in depth study by expertss, the decisioin for wae and peace was madevon the whims of these three men. The Japanese were different. They actually studied the issue and weighed the costs and benefits. Tojo was not an absolute dictator, He of course was very influential, but he had to rule by consensus. In particular. the Army and Navy had to reach agreement.

Created: 7:02 AM 4/3/2020
Last updated: 7:19 PM 6/25/2024