** World War II Japan background








World War II: Japan--Background (1900s-20s)


Figure 1.--The Japanese military steadily expanded its influence in the early 20th century, but aggessively moved in the 1930s to seize total control of the government. It very sucessfully coopted young people. Here we see a Japanese boy meeting Santa in an admiral's uniform. The wire service caption read, "A Japanese little admiral welcoming Santa Clause: If asked what he is going to be when he griows up, almost every Japaneseboy replies thst he is going to become anAdmiral or General. The oocture shows a boy who admires Admiral Togo welcoming Santa Cluse on the Christmas in the uniform of an admiral." The photograph was dated December 13, 1939.

The Emperor Taisho (1912-26) is generally seen as a weak emperor. During his reign the center of power in Japan shifted from the Emperor and the oligarchic clique (genro) around him to the Parliament (Diet) and the democratic parties. Japan with little encouragement joined the Allies in World War I. The country played only a minor role in the War, but gained German possessions in the Central Pacific which they proceeded to turn into fortified bases. Japan as a member of the victorious Allied World War I coalition expected to be treated with considerable deferemce. Instead they were largely ignored at the Paris Peace Conference. The convent of the League of Nations was part of the Versailles Treagty. Japan proposed adding a "racial equality clause" to the covenant of the League of Nations. This was rejected by the United States, Britain and Australia. President Wilson promoted national self determination at the Conference, but he was not ad advocate of racial equality. Racist attituides were also common among the other European powers. Japanese diplomats at the Washington Naval Conference (1921) failed to achieve goals and this angered nationalist elements, especially in the Army. Japanese diplomats at the Washington Naval Conference (1921) failed to achieve goals and this angered nationalist elements, especially in the Army. Racist attitudes toward oriental people had plagued Western attitides toward both the Chinmese and Japanese in the 19th and 20th centuries. With the Japanese this began with Commodore Perry's opening of Japanese ports (1850s). Japanese emmigrating to America encounterted both racism and racist laws. Even so, a sizeable Japanese population flourished in both the Hawaian Islands and California. These laws were a sore point in American_Japanese relations. Incidents in the 1920s were widely reported in Japan. America after World War significantly restricted immigration. Restrictive quotas were established for European immigration. The United States enacted the Exclusion Act that prohibited further Japanes eimmigration (1924). Japan in the 1920s and 30s was Asia's only industrial nation. It was, however, an indudtrial nation with few natural resources. It also did not have an agricultural sector capable of feeding the population. Japan was thus the country at the time most dependent on foreign trade, especially exporting its industrial output to finance raw material and food imporys. The country, however. experienced economic difficulties after World war I. The Great Kanto Earthquake did substantial ecionomic damage (1923). The Wall Street stock crash (1929) and resulting Depression caused further problems. The protectionist trade policies in America and Europe in particular adversely affected the Japanese economy. The Japanese military increasingly advocated action to secure markets and raw materials. Japan as part of its late 19th century modernization program began to build modern military forces. The Imperial Army was the dominant service and built on the Prussian model. The Imperial Navy was smaller, but give Japan's island location still of considerable importance. The Navy was built on a British model. After World War I, both services gave considerable priority into building power air wings. In this effort they received invaluavle assistance from the Germans.

Expanionism

The Meiji leaders who seized control of Japan (1870s) sought to transform Japan into a modern nation of the first order (ittô koku). And at the time this included foreign territorial possessions. And at the time the Ruropeans were emershed in the Scramble for Afruca. Thus from an early stage, even under civilian governments began pursuong expanionist policies. In oartucular they eyed China. The First Sino-Jaoanese War secired Formosa (1894-95). The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) secired Korea.

American Open Door Policy (1899-1900)

The United States promoted what it called the Open Door Policy when Japan and European countries began enforcing restrictive policies in their treaty ports. The United States was concerned that the Treaty Powers would monopolize trade. It was unclear just where this would lead. China might have been broken up into economic sectors dominated by the various Treaty Powers and the eventual colonization of China. These developments in China coresponded to an economic downturn in America--the Depression of 1893. American misionries had inspired an interest in China. The 1890s Depression generated increased interest in foreign markets. And after the Spanish American War and the acquisition of the Philippines, Guam, and Hawaii which also generated increased interest in China. As a result of the Spanish-American War, the United Ststes had become az Pacific power. Until that time, the American focus had been not exclusively, but largely, focused on Europe and the Atlantic. American textile manufacturers were very sucessful selling inexpensive cotton textiles. And as America became the world's msajor industrial power, the Chinmese market looked inviting. The alure was China's huge popultion epitomized by the slogan--'Oil for the lamps of China'. The United States had not demanded a treaty port from Chin and instead traded through the Treaty Ports established by the European powers, especially the British ports. The United States during the Presidency of William McKinley announced the Open Door Policy. The idea was strongly promoted by Secretary of State John Hay (1898-1905). The Sate Deprtment issued two 'Open Door' notes concerning international trade relations with China (1899 anbd 1900). The Open Door policy promoted the idea that all countries with an imperial interest in China should accept a free and open trade policy in China. The Open Door policy, however, included the idea that all interested parties should accept and respect Chinese territorial integrity. This would soon bring the United States into coflict, not with the European Treaty powers, but with the growing Japanese Empire which had much more expansive designs on China. Secretary Hay was attempting to counter the spread of Treaty Ports and increasingly restictive the various Treaty powes were adopting. The United States after the Spanish-American War also began maintaing a squadron in China. At the time when first issued the United States was especially concerned about Russian advances in northern China. After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), Americn diplomsats and naval plannbers became increasing comcerned with Imperial Japan. [Pash] The completion of the Panama Canal added to the Pacific thinking and increasingly interest in China. The Open Door was finally ended after World War I when Chiang Kai-Check's Nationalists (KMT) ended the Treaty Ports--except for Shanghai and Hong Kong (1920s).

Settlement of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)

Japan had the backing of Britain in the Russo-Japanese War (1994-05). Britain which saw the Russians as a threat to India was proividing technical supportt to Japan as provided for in the Anglo-Japanese Naval Treaty (1902). During the War, Brutain refused to allow the Russian Baltic Fleet passage through the Suez Canal considerably lebthdning the voyage to the Pacifiuc and Japnese waters-- a factory in the victory at Tsushima (May 1905). President Theodore Roosevely offered to medite. This led to the Treaty of Portsmouth ending the conflict (Setember 1905). The President won the Novel Peace Orize for his efforts, but Japanese nationlists were unhappy wih thr eewsults. They thought they could have obtained more if they had continued the War. As part of the Treaty, Japan agreed to the Open Door abd the territotisl integrity of China. Americans for their part began to see Japan rater than Russia as the primary threat to China's territirial integrity and peace in East Asia as well as the Open Door in China. [Pash]

Roosevelt Contaiment Policy 1901-09)

President Roosevelt laubched the Amerucan policy of containment. [Pash] The President in helping settle the Russo-Japanese War initisated a policy of contsaiment aimed a cutailing Japanese power and pursuing Hay's Open Door policy. It should be stressed that the Open Door policy was not just about trade, but it was a commitment to China's territiril integrity. There was danger that the Russian Army woukd completely collapse. By arranging a peace, Roosevelkt prevented this. And after thge War the Russians very quickly built up their forces in northern Manchuria. The President also moved to demostrate Amerucan milityary power. Japan was a port if all of the Freat Whute Fleet. At the time the American sailors were very ciridally received. A group of Jaoanese children sang the Star Spangled Banner in English. On board one of the American bsttleships was a young ensign -- William 'Bull' Halsey. Roosevelt insisted on the Japan visit. He told his afvisers pointedly, "I want the Japnese to understand thsat not all Western navies were like the Russian navy." Along with the naval show of force was diplomstiv engagement--the Root Takahira Agreenment (1908). The greement was fashionws by Secretary of State Elihu Root, whi had replaced Hay, and Japanese ambassador Takahira Kogorō. The agrreement essebtially reiterated many of the basic provisions previuously agreed to in the Treary of Portsmouuth and bvarious 'entlemen’s agreements' [Gould, p. 268.] The two countries pledged to maintain 'the existing status quo' in the region. The United States recognized Japan’s pre-eminence in Korea and southern Manchuria. Japan pledged to maintain the Pacific Ocean as an open avenue of trade. Both parties recognize their insular Pacifgic territories in the Pacific (including the U.S. territories of the Philippines and Hawaii). And thery agreed to consult in the any Asian crisis that threatened the status quo. Japan again committed to honor the Open Door, including the territorial integrity of China. [Pash] At the time the vAgreement was poraised in the press for cooling tensions as a result of immigratioin issues.. It has since been criticized for conceeding to mmuch to Japan. [Jiang, p.43.] t should be stressed that nothing was comceeded thatb Japan did not laready possess.

Emperor Taisho (1912-26)

The Emperor Taisho (1912-26) is generally seen as a weak emperor. During his reign the center of power in Japan shifted from the Emperor and the oligarchic clique (genro) around him to the Parliament (Diet) and the democratic parties.

World War I (1914-18)

Japan joined the Allies almost at the onset of the War (August 23, 1914). It seems surprising that Japan would have entered the War so quickly when the German Army was marching through Belgium and seemed likely to reach Paris. Japan had signed an Alliance with Britain (1902), but it was not aimed at Germany nor did it require Japan to join the Allies when war broke out in Europe. The British fearing that the German Far Eastern Squadron would disrupt trade, asked the Japanese for assistance. The Japanese Government for largely domestic reasons quickly agreed to the British request. Japan saw the opportunity to seize Germany’s Pacific colonies and obrin control over its Chinese concessions. [Strachan] Germany had acquired several colonial possessions, including concessions in China and Pacific islands. The Germans build a major naval base at Tsingtao. It was hear that the only major engagement in the Far East was fought. The Japanese supported by the British succeeded in seizing Tsingtao a very little cost in a combined land sea operation (November 1914). More importantly for the future, the Japanese seized control of the formerly German owned Shantung Railway. Japan seized German Pacific islands without resistance, includung Palau and the Marshall, Caroline, and Marianas islands. This gave them the naval bases at Yap, Ponape, and Jaluit. Japanese naval surveyors subsequently discovered the potential fleet base of Truk, and after the war built a major naval base there. As agreed by the Allies, the Japanese seized German colonies north of the Equator while those to the south were seized by British and Dominion forces. A New Zealand force escorted by British, French and Australian warships seized German Samoa (August 28, 1914). A British ship seized the guano-mining island of Nauru. The Australian Navy seized the Bismarck Islands (September 1914). The German forces surrendered German New Guinea and the Bismarck, Admiralty, and Solomon Islands. After seizing the German bases, the Japanese Navy assisted the Allies in convoy protection from German raiders. There were small German military units in these colonies as well as civilians. We do not notice any attrocities by the Japanese during World War I like they committed during World War II.

Wilson Contaiment Policy (1917-18)

Japan since The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) had repeartedly commited to the American Open Door Polict and the teritorial integrity of China. World War demonstrably changed the facts on the ground. The Japanese provided the bulk of the Allied forces thatseuzed the German Treaty port of Tsingtao (1914). This firmly inplanted the Japanese forces in Shangtun Province, beyond the concessions gained in the Russo-Japanese War. nd they show no interest of returning the province to China--a violtion of the Open Door The Japanese Goverment macinnations sare not fully understood. But the Goverment issued the Twenty-One Demands on the weak Chinese Goverment at the time (January 1915). The Twenty-One Demands claimed a range of special privileges and rights virtually reducing China to a Jappnese Protectorate. It was a clear repudition of the Open Door and a major threat to Chinese Terrritoitil integrity. The European Treaty powers at war in Europe were not in a position to intervene. The United States was even after entering World War I. Both President Wilson and Secretary of State Robert Lansingh had strong feelings about both the Open Door and China's territorial integrity. The President saw the American as preserving China’s administrative and territorialintegrity through rigid adherence to Open Door principles. He saw that as the best hope of China develop along 'modern, democratic, and Christian lines." [Beers, p. 29 and 16-17.] Secretary Lansing and mbasadir Ishi worked to address a range od issues affectgung relations. Lansing wanted an unequivocal commkitment to the Open Door and Chinese territorial integrity. Ishii did not see why his country's commitment to the the Open Door and Chinese territirial integrity need to be repeated. And he raised the issue of the U.S. exports controls authorized by commgress (June 1917). [Berman and Garson, p.791.] He wanted Japan to excempted from the steel enbargo imposed. Ishii swanted Japan which was heavily dependent on Americamn steel to be exempted. [Endicott] Thus steel became an early Americn experiment in the policy of cintiment. [Safford] The Lansing–Ishii Agreement (石井・ランシング協定) was signed in Washington (November 1917). Both parties agreed to respect the independence and territorial integrity of China, and to follow the Open Door. The United States recognized Japan had special interests in Machuria. The Chinese objected to the agreement and it was abrogated in 1923. [Tuchman, p.48.] It was replce by the Nine Powers greement negotited in the Washington Talks. There was a secret protocol attached to the agreement which is interesting given Wilson's rejection od secretbarrangements jn his Fourteen Points. The Lnsing-Ishii Agreemnt was oraised t the time, but gradually it becme seen that in dealng with Jom the eealities okn the ground were fr more importsnt than paper sgreemrnts. And the collapse of the Russian Army as a result of the War and Russian Revolution (1917). This renoved any real military challenge to Japan in Manchuria.

Versailles Peace Traety (1919)

Japan as a member of the victorious Allied World War I coalition expected to be treated with considerable deference. Instead they were largely ignored at the Paris Peace Conference. The convent of the League of Nations was part of the Versailles Treagty. Japan proposed adding a "racial equality clause" to the covenant of the League of Nations. This was rejected by the United States, Britain and Australia. President Wilson promoted national self determination at the Conference, but he was not an advocate of racial equality. Racist attituides were also common among the other European powers. The Treaty awarded Japan a mandate over the Pacific islands they had seized from Germany.

Washington Conference (1921)

The major naval powers (America, Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) agreed to substantial limitations on their naval strength which at the time was measured in battleships. American Secretary of State, Charles Evans Hughes organized a conference to address the problem of spiraling naval expendidutres as a result of the naval arms race. Senator William E. Borah, Republican of Idaho, who had led the fight againstvAmerican ratification of the Treaty of Versailles and participation in the League of Nations, strongly advocated efforts to limit the arms race. His efforts were not at first favored by the new Harding administration, but was eventually adopted as the Republican alternative to the Democrat's (Wilson's) policy of collective security through the League of Nations. The Confrence opened on Armistice Day 1921--a very meaningful date so close to World War I. The American delegation was led by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. Hughes shocked the other delegates by proposing a major reduction in naval fleets and not just limitations on new construction. This was far beyond what the other countries had anticipated. Some have called this one of the most dramatic moments in American diplomatic history. The American proposals entailed scrapping almost 2 million tons of warships as well as alengthy 'holiday' on new building. While the Naval Talks received the greatest attention. Also agreed to at the Washington Conference was the Nine Powers Treaty on China in which Japan agsain committed to the Open Door and the territotial integrity of China. The consequences of the Washington Treaties went far beyond this. Japanese diplomats at the Washington Naval Conference (1921) failed to achieve goals and this angered nationalist elements, especially in the Army.

Nationalist Outrage

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) was a departure for both Britain and Japan. British policy in the late-19th century at the time was 'Splendiud Isolation' that had dominated British diplomacy after the Naspoleonic Wars, but is especially associated with the late-19th century, despite the growing German challenge. The primary purpose was the mutual concern toward the Russians. The Alliance beefitted both countries. The British relationship was a fctor in the subsequent Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). And the Japanese supported the Brutish in World War I (1914-18). There were discenters, both within and outside the Empire. Australians and others were not all that happy with the arrangements. Neither were the Americans. And concerns were growing in Japan, not so much with the British, but toward the Americans, but many Japanese did not destinguish between America and Britain which had the same language and looked alike. Problems began with the American immigration policy and than President Roosevelt's who mediated an end to the Russian War. Many Japanese nationalists believed that Roosevelt prevented them from obtaining the spoils they believed that they deserved. Than America and Britsin forced them to backdown from the Twenty-One Demands they desired to impose on China. The Japanese were offended by their treatment at the Versailles Peace Conferencer (1919). In particular they expected support from the British. The Americans further incened the Japanese by demanding they withdraw from Siberia after World War I (1922). Perhaps the greatest greviance of all, espcilly for nasval officers, was that that Japanese did not receive parity with the American and British fleets. Many officers considered the Treaties a humiliating insult to their national honor. Many natioinalists advocated an aggressive preparation for war, although this was their mindset even before the Washington Treaties. Others such as Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto insisted that war with America and Britian would be suicidal. Because of America's superior industrial and technical capability, Yamamoto argued that Japan could never win a naval arm's race. The Washington Trasty thus was advantageous to the Japanese. Yamamoto was for a time targeted for assasination. He was, however, appointed commander of the Imperial Navy. He was an inovative strategist and in particular prompted the naval air wing. After the Washington Treaty, Britain how to make a decision. They could continue their relationship with Japan or develop a new relationship with America that had begun when America entered World War I on the Allied side (1917). Britain's policy since Trafalgar was to maintain a naval force ar least equal to the two other largest navies. The cost of World War I and the rise of the United States meant that this was no longer possible. And the British estblishmenbt wuth some unease decided to accept the rise of American naval power. The Treaty was terminated by the British (1921-23). The Japanese were offened, another factor in the series of grevianses felt by the Japanese.

Traditional Society

Japan after experiencing a disruptibe perid as a resu;t of Western influene, tried to cut itself off grom the outside world. The Tokugawa shogunate attempted to cpmplelety isolate the country from all outside influences, especially Christian. The kept Japan an essentially feudal, medievel society. This did not change until until the arrival of Commodore Perry and his Black Ships (1853). The Japanese correctly cocluded unlike the Chinese that the only way of maintaiing their independence was to industrialize so they could build European weapons. China had a population 30 times the population of England in the 19th centry, but industry gave Britain 10 times the firepower of China. Japan saw this and China did not, even afyer rhe humiliation of the Opium Wars (1840s-60s). The result in Japan was the Meiji Restoration (1867). The Emperor Meiji and his advisors introduced many modernizing reforms. He began Japan's industrialization, a parlimentary government, a Western school system, aWestern military and secular civil service. At the same time the Mmperor did not attempt to moderize Japanese siciety. Land remained in the hands of imprtant nobels and was highly ineffiucent. Most of the population intunued to live in theccountryside at subsistence lebels. Women cintinued to live sunservient rules. Labor unions were barely tolerated. Medevil concepts like emperor worship and bushido continued along with the moderizing reforms. While Japan was the only indutrial ecomomy in Asia, its economy was a fraction of the size of even European powers, let alone america and the Soviet Union. The urban population had begin to modernize, but not the rural population. The Army steadily grew in importamce especiallya fter World War I. It was the major way that rural youth could seek opprtunity in Japan. By the time of the War the Japanese Army was controlled by a leadership which saw how it could conquer neighboring countries by military force, but withoiut any knowlledge of the modern countries of Europe and America. The Army leadership was fervently nationalistic and loyal ti the Army as an institutiom becuse it had offered oportunity and advancement. And because many came from the virtually medieval rural areas, embued in the spirit of medieval Europe with the Samarai and Bushido spirit.

Racist Attitudes and Policies

Racist attitudes toward oriental people had plagued Western attitides toward both the Chinmese and Japanese in the 19th and 20th centuries. With the Japanese this began with Commodore Perry's opening of Japanese ports (1850s). Japanese emmigrating to America encounterted both racism and racist laws. Even so, a sizeable Japanese population flourished in both the Hawaian Islands and California. These laws were a sore point in American_Japanese relations. Incidents in the 1920s were widely reported in Japan. America after World War significantly restricted immigration. Restrictive quotas were established for European immigration. The United States enacted the Exclusion Act that prohibited further Japanes eimmigration (1924).

Shidehara Diplomacy (1920s)

Danshaku (baron) Shidehara Kijūrō (1872-1951) was a Japanese diplomat and statesman associated with the peaceful foreign policy and accomodation of the West followed (1920s) which is know at Shidehara diplomacy. Shidehara entered the diplomatic service (1899). he was fist posted to Korea before Japan seized control and added it to the empire. He thaebn was posted to Britain, America, and the Netherlands--ironically the major combatants of the Pacific War except Australia. As ambassador to the United States he addressed the issue of U.S. immigration which discriminated against the Japanese with no success (1919). Japan's aggressice policy in East Asia . primarily a serach for raw materials by a resource-poor country, had led to the seizure of Taiwan, Korea, and southern Manchuria had aroused the increasiung concern of Western nations. This surfaced during World War I with Japan's Twenty-One Demands. And China was also becoming increasingly apprehensive after the seizure of Tsintao/Shandong Province in World War I and the demand at the Paris Peace Conference that the Province be transferred to the growing Japanese Empire (1919). This resulted in huge anti-Japanese protests in major Chinese cities. The United States was the country most cooncerned. (Britain was still an ally, Germany was defeated, and Russian was torn apart by civil war.) The United States had been critical of the Treaty Ports and was pursuing the Open Door. Japan was trying to extend treaty ports to whole provinces--a direct challenge to the Open Door. The United States convened a major conference of nations in Washington, primarily to discuss naval arms limitations, but included talks on Pacific regional security (1921). he Washington Conference led to agreements on several issues, but the major accomplishment was the conclusion of the Nine Power Treaty recognizing 1) the territorial integrity of China and 2) the Open Door. Japan ahain repeated its acceptance of these principles. And thus under Shidehara as Foreiugn Minister Japanese Governments during the 1920s genrally followed thed principles of the Nine Power Treaty. Shidehara became foreign minister at a difficult time for Japanese dipliomacy. Under Shidehara, Japan attempted to use diplomacy economic means to achieve its goals in Asia. Shidehara after World War I had concluded that America and Britain had become the dominant world powers and Japan would have to accomodate them. And he attemopted to resolvde issues with Ching Kai-shek's KMT. His policies led to the collapse of Prime Minister Wakatsuki givernment (April 1927). He returned to power (1929), but concesions at the LKindin Naval Conference infuruated the militarists (1930). There were major powerful forces working against him. First, Japanese industry was growing, especially the development of heavy industry which required more and more raw materials. Japanese industrialsts were demandiung governmenbt action. Second, nationalist fervor was groewing in the militaty and chaffing at civilian control. Third, the Great Depression adversely affected Japan' export-dependent economy. In September 1931, the Kwangtung Army invaded and occupied Manchuria without authorization from the central government (Seotember 1931). This effectively ended Shidehara's non-interventionist policy in China his diplmtic csreer. Shidehara remained a member of the House of Peers (1931-45, but orudently maintained a low profile as the molkitarists charted a oath tiward war.

Economic Difficulties

The Japanese economy rapidly grew during the late-19th and by the turn-of-the 20th century, Japan was Asia's only industrial power. It was, however, an industrial nation with few natural resources. It also did not have an agricultural sector capable of feeding the expandinbg industrial workforce. Japan was thus the country at the time most dependent on foreign trade, especially exporting its industrial output to finance raw material and food imports. World War I helped bring about further growth. Japan during the War presented the Twent-one Demand to China to help adress the growing problwems of Japanese industry. Japan's rapid growth came to a sudden stop with the Shōwa financial crisis (early-1920s). The result was growing social unrest and the sharopened polarization of society. Socialist, communist, and anarchist ideas spread among Japanese workers, especially the labor unions. This was a shock to conservative Japanese society already adjusting to industrialization. The Great Kanto Earthquake did substantial economic damage (1923). The Wall Street stock crash (1929) and resulting Depression caused further problems. The protectionist trade policies in America and Europe in particular adversely affected the Japanese economy.

Assasination

The Japanese military and right-wing politicns were unable to win parlimentary votes in the Diet, the Japanese parliment. As a result they adopted, like other totalitarians, extra-legal methods. The Japanese nationslirs chose assasination. The simply assasinated prime ministers and other parlimentarians thar dared restrict military budgets and aggressive policies. Th process was not begun by the miltary. A disgruntled railway switchman named Nakoka Kon'ichi assainated Prime Minister Hara Takashi, who had led the Seiyukai (Association of Friends of Constitutional Government) (1921). Prime Minister Yuko Hamaguchi leading member of the liberal Rikken Minseitō (Constitutional Democratic Party). As the Depression began to impact Japan, a right-wing fanatic attempted to assasinate Hamaguchi (Novembr 1930). He surived the shooting, but died 8 months later. Reactionary elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy, assisted by cadets in the Imperial Japanese Army and remnants of the civilian ultra nationalist League of Blood (Ketsumei-dan). laujnched the May 15 Incident (五・一五事件, Goichigo Jiken) (1932). A group of 11 junior naval officers assainated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. The coup failed. The participants were aresseted and tried. Popular support, however, led to light sentences. The coup hile failing, actually strengthening the rising power of Japanese militarism and left democracy and the rule of law severely limited. Soldiers unsuccessfully rebelled against the government (1936). Again the coup filed. Anfd thi time the pounishment was not light. Thirteen military officers and four civilians involved in the coup were executed. But the impact was to conform military control of the government.

Japanese Military

Japan as part of its late 19th century modernization program began to build modern military forces. The Imperial Army was the dominant service and built on the Prussian model and Bushido spirit. The pretigious Kwantung Army played a key role in driving the march to war, essential young, ultra nationalist junior officers pushing their more conservtive commanders. The Imperial Navy was smaller, but given Japan's island location still of considerable importance. The Navy was built on a British model. While the military was built on European models, one departure was the increasing politization of the military, especially the Imperial Army after world War I. After World War I, both services gave considerable priority to building powerful air wings. In this effort they received invaluable technical assistance from the Germans. We do not yet have information on Japanese conscription laws. We note a naval recruit about 1940, Tadashi Yoshihara.

Militarism

Japan was different than the other totalitarian powers. There was no Communist or Fascist polititical party driving expanionism and racism and promoting war--the thrust for these policies came from the military. The Japanese military, especially the junior officers, came to largely reject liberal democracy with its squabling political parties that were prone to restrict military budgets. Elements in the military increasingly advocated action to control Communist agitation, expanded arms spending, and expantionist policies to secure markets and raw materials. The focus of expanionist policies was initially on China. Industrial and financial leaders continued to profit by close ties to to politicians and bureaucrats. The military was considered "clean" in terms of political corruption, and elements within the army were determined to take direct action to eliminate the perceived threats to Japan created by the weaknesses of liberal democracy and political corruption. One of the most important of the Army factions was the Imperial Way Faction (皇道派, Kōdōha). It became influential in the 1920s. Many junior officers ascriped to Kōdōha and came to think that the military should set up a totalitarian government that would pursue militarist and expansionist policies. This was in part a reaction to the social unrest and rising Communist influence in labor unions. Kōdōha was never organized as a political party, but its ideas were widely accepted throughout the Army. The founders of the Kōdōha faction were Sadao Araki and his protégé Jinzaburō Masaki. A more moderation faction developed within the Army--Tōseiha. It was notable primarily to the opposition to Kōdōha. Actually Tōseiha accepted many Kōdōha goals such as the need to expand and acquire natural resources. Tōseiha saw that expantionism would require morecthan than the military, but government beaureacracy, politicans, and industrial leaders. Some of the Kōdōha/Tōseiha split would be recflected in the subsequent Strike North/South debate. In Japan rather than a totalitarian political party seizing control of the state and military, it was the military, especially the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) that seized control of the state and abolisghed political parties. And like Hitler, the Japanese militarists reached the conclusion that that expansion of their small empire (Formosa and Korea) through military conquest would solve the country's economic problems. Japan had a parlimentary system controlled by conservative parties. The militarists began to grown in power after Wiorld War I when some Pacific Island gfoups were added to the Empire. Vut what the Japanese wanrted was China and furing the war the cvilian governmen issued the 21 Demands on the new Chinese Republic (1915). Conservative elements in the military was disappointed when civilian governments did not pursue these demands with more vigor. And they were outraged when the Government did not achieve parity with the United States at the Washington Naval Talks (1921). Actually the talks assisted Japan in achieving naval dominance in the Pacific becaue they restructed American naval contruction while Japan did not have the industrial capacity to build at a greater rate than she did. Secret socities in the military, especially the Army advocated military expansion and expoused xeophoniv nationalist and racial ideas. Civilian politicans who attempted to resist them were assainated. These ideas gained even more support with the onset of the Great Depression (1930s). The militarists, most without any academic training in economics, insisted that the rapid growth of Japan’s population to support industrialization had created a national crisis. The population of 65 million could not be fed from te ciuntry agricultural sector. Food had to be imported. And to pay for those imports, Japan had to have secure export markets. Western countries had as a result of the Depression increased tariffs and limited exports. The militarists saw China with its large population and agrucultural production as the answer to Japan's problems. And the militarists saw the country's political parties and parlimentary government failing to pursue these policies. As a result of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan obtained the Kwantung Leased Territory and the areas adjacent to the South Manchurian Railway. Manchuria remained a part of China, but these cincessions gave the Japanese a major role in the economy. Kwantung means 'east of Shanhaiguan', a strategic pass and entance of the Great all, east of which lies Manchuria. The Japanese Army established the Kwantung Garrison (1906), it was gradually expanded into the Kwantung Army (KA). Radical expanionist policies popuklar in the IJA were especially strong within the KA. The KA became the largest and most prestigious command in the IJA. Many of its top personnel, such as Chiefs of Staff Seishirō Itagaki and Hideki Tōjō were promoted to high positions in both the military and civil government during the 1930s. Military officers were appointed to important government positions. The impetus for expanion came from the Kwantung Army, both the seizure of Manchuria (1931) and the invasion of China (1937). By the late 1930s, the military not only controlled the Government, but military officers were appointed to the major ministries. General Tōjō became prime minister. From these positions, the militarists were able to dominate Japanese sicir=ety through ciontrol of the press and schools. The Japanese Army military police, Kempeitai, expanded to assume the role of a secret police in Japanese civilian life, rather like the German Gestapo to supess any civilain discent.

Tanaka Memorial (1929)

The Tanaka Memorial (田中上奏文) is an suposed Japanese strategic planning document (1927). Prime Minister Baron Tanaka Giichi allegedly prepared for Emperor Hirohito a strategy to conquer the world. It was during the 1930s and 40s a widely accepted authentic plan. The weight of scholarly opinion today is that it was a forgery, but there is no conclusive evidence one way or another. One imporant factor to consider is the extent to which Japan's foreign and military stratefy adhered ton the tenants of this aledged non-existant document. The Japanese never released the document to the public. It was aledgedly a secret document prepared for the Emperor. The Tanaka Memorial first was reported in the Chinese journal, Current Affair Monthly (時事月報) published in Nanking (December 1929). The Chinese at the time certainly has an interest in depicting the Japanese in the blackest terms, although they had not yet invaded Manchuria. The articles discussed the central tenants: 1) In order to take over the world, you need to take over China, 2) In order to take over China, you need to take over Manchuria and Mongolia, 3) If we succeed in conquering China, 4) The rest of the Asiatic countries and the South Sea countries will fear us and surrender to us, and 5) Then the world will realize that Eastern Asia is ours. It first appeared in the West on the Coomunist Communist International magazine, but circulation and thus the impact was limited (1931). This changed when Herbert W. Armstrong choes the document for the lead article in his new Plain Truth magazine (February 1934). The Japanese denied that the document was real, but their seizure on Manchuria (1931) and invasion of China (1937) suggested that they were proceeding just as Baron Tanaka had planned. One aspect of the Tanka Memorial leads us to questin it that seizyre of Soviet Siberia does not feature prominently in Barin Tanaka's suposed plan. This was the time the centralm tennany of the powerful Strike North Faction. None other than Leon Trotsky just before he was assasinated under Stalin's orders. He charged that Soviet intelligence had obtained the document from a highly placed operative in Tokyo, but did not want to compromise the source by releasing it openly. [Trotsky] What ever the truth concerning the origins of the document, it was widely used cited by Allied propaganda to explain Japan's objectives furing the War. When the America occupation forces arrived in Japan arrived in Japan after the country surrendered, they begabn searching for the Tanaka Memorial and other incriminating documents. A Japanese language original has never been found despite extensive search efforts. It should be noted that the interval between the Japanese surrender (August 15) and the arrival of American occupation forces in Japan (September 3) that the Japanese set about the massive destruction of documents. The Military and the various ministries burned mountains of documents. This complicated the subsequent war crimes trials. In contrast, much of Germany was occupied before the Germans surrendered. This destruction was noted in the War Crimes trials. The inability to find a copy of the document thus by itself is not strong evidence that it did not exist.

Sources

Beers, Burton F. Vain Endeavor: , Robert Lansing' Attemptsto End the Ameerican-Japanese Rivalry (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1962).

Berman, Harold J. and John R. Garson. "United States export controls--Past, present, and future,' Columbia Law Review Vol. 67, No. 5 (May, 1967), pp. 791-890.

Endicott, John Edgar. "The Ishii mission and the Lansing-Ishii negotiations of 1917, studenty thesis (1968).

Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (University Press of Kansas: 1992).

Jinag, Arnold Xiangje' The United States and China (University of Chicago Press: 1988).

Pash, Sidney. The Currents of War: A New History of American-Japanese Relations, 1899-1941 (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2014).

Safford, Jeffrey J. "Experiment in containment: The United States steel embargo and Japan, 1917-1918," Pacific Historical Review Vol. 39, No. 4 (November 1970), pp. 439-51.

Trotsky, Leon. The 'Tanaka Memorial'(1940). Published after Trotsky's murder in Mexico by the Fourth International Vol. 3. No. 5 (June 1941), pp. 131-35).

Tuchman, Barbara (2001). Stillwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–1945 (Grove Press:2001)

Current Affair Monthly (時事月報) published in Nanking (December 1929). The Tanaka Nemorial was first made public here. It was again publishd in China Critic (September 14, 1931), pp. 923-34. This was an English-language publication in Shangahi.







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Created: 5:54 AM 11/20/2005
Last updated: 3:00 AM 6/27/2021