Figure 1.-- This portrait of an unidentified English boy reportedly is wearing a school uniform. We are not entirely sure if he is wearing an actual uniform or simply the clothes he wore to school. It looks to be a black tunic suit with a large lace collar and matching nilitary-stle peaked cap. We also do not know which school he attended. The artist is John James Masquerier (1778�1855). He was a British painter with French Hugenot parents. We do not know when the this portrait was painted, but might guess abgout the 1820s. We are guessing he is a new boy at a public (private boarding) school. These schools could be very rough places, esecially for the younger boys like him. This is why prepratory schools began to appear at mid-century.
England had no state supported schools in the early 19th century that the children of poor people or modest income people could attend. Several countries, especially in Germany had begun to found state supported primary schools, but this was not yet the case in England. While England had no state schools, there were many private, fee-paying schools. Younger children might be educated in fee-paying schools called dame schools where they were taught to read or simple mathematics. Older children might attend public schools. These public schools were not schools in the American sence of state-supported schools. There were public schools, but by this the British meant that the schools were open to the public that could afford to pay school fees. It was not just at the public schools that England's future leders were educated. The children of wealthy aristocratic children, often did not attend the public scchools. They tended to be rough, sometimes even dangerous places. Children from wealthy families might be tutored at home. The Industrial Revolution which began in England during the mid-18th century had by the early 19th century profounfly affected British society. The experience of childood and education were two of many areas affected. There were attempts through charity to educate the poor. There were both older schools as well as new schools founded in the early 19th cebntury to educate working class children. Europeans in the 18th century treated children essentially as small adults. They excpected children to become responsible at a very young age. Play was seen as idele behavior and discouraged. One indication of this was the fact that children in the 18th century were dressed as small adults. There was in the late 18th and early 19th century considerable debate about educational approaches. Teaching methods in the early 19th century were strongly influenced by English philosopher John Locke.
Sunday School Movement
State Schools
England had no state supported schools in the early 19th century that the children of poor people or modest income people could attend. Several countries, especially in Germany had begun to found state supported primary schools, but this was not yet the case in England. One might ask why England lagged behind other countries in state supported education. The answer is somewhat unclear, but appears to be essentially that the English establishment did not consider it wise to educate the working class. Landowners saw probably with some clarity that education the children of education laborors would mean that most would leave seek better paying jobs in the city. Industrialists probably opposed state education for much the same reason, that a better education working class would be more difficult to deal with. There were also philosophical attitudes towad the proper role of government. We suspect, however, that if the British establishment had seen a financial benefit to state-supported education that there philosophical quams would have been overcome much sooner.
Private Schools
While England had no state schools, there were many private, fee-paying schools. Younger children might be educated in fee-paying schools called dame schools where they were taught to read or simple mathematics. Older children might attend public schools. These public schools were not schools in the American sence of state-supported schools. There were public schools, but by this the British meant that the schools were open to the public that could afford to pay school fees. Britain's private schools were created to teach the children of affluent families. The public schools were organized to educate the children of affluent or upper class families so they could play their role as future leaders of society. These were boarding schools. The public schools followed the classical educational tradition modeled on the Greek model. Despite the increasing importance of the Industrial Revolution, science was not a subject of importance at public schools. Rather the curriculum still centered on the classics, meaning learning Latin and Greek. A thorough understanding of the classics were required for university entrance. The public schools also stressed self control and character formation. As a result, games (sports) were an important part of the school program. The competition and physical challenge was seen as character building. There were no definitive age to begin at these schools. And many of the younger noys found them very rouhjh plaves indeed when they began to board. As a result, preparatory schools began to appear at mid-century to meet the needs of the younger boys.
Tutors
It was not just at the public schools that England's future leders were educated. The children of wealthy aristocratic children, often did not attend the public scchools. They tended to be rough, sometimes even dangerous places. Children from wealthy families might be tutored at home. A famous English novel, Tom Brown's School Days is based on this situation and the reforming headmaster at Rugby School--Dr. Arnold. There were considerable efforts to reform the public schools and by the late 19h century, it was common for even the very rich to attend them.
The Industrial Revolution which began in England during the mid-18th century had by the early 19th century profounfly affected British society. The experience of childood and education were two of many areas affected. Handicraft and piece wirk and other forms of small-scale manufacturing was being replaced by the factory system and labor saving devices that created increasing efficencies. An urban proleterit had developed that existed on virtual subsistence level. This working class could not afford to send theor children to school. In fact, the children often had to workto support the family. Children and women were in fact an important part of the early industrial workforce. They would work for a fraction of the wages of a man and their smaller sizes allowed them to do jobs that were difficult for men. Britain in the early 19th century had only the most minimal child labor legislation. While many workers labored for minimal salaries, others benefited. Industrialists made great firtunes. Perhaps more importantly many jobs were created which greatly expanded the middle class. This mean more and more families had the money to send their children to the public schools.
Charity Schools
There were attempts through charity to educate the poor. There were both older schools as well as new schools founded in the early 19th cebntury to educate working class children. An early attempt here were the hospital schools dating from the 15th century. Many grammar schools were also founded along charitable lines, although I believe that by the early 19th century they were more commonly fee paying schools. There were some philantrhopists experimenting with ways of educating the children of the new urban proleteriat created by the Industrial Revolution. One school was created by reformer Robert Owen at New Lanark in Scotland. While the New Lanark School was in Scotland, it was widely written about in England. One school that was created by the state, actually the Army, was the Duke of York's School school for the orphaned and indigent children of enlisted servicemen. Two English
in creating schools for working-class children were Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster. They created educational systems centered on the monitorial
system. Here a single master taught the older children who in turn taught the younger children. This was considered an especially appropriate approach to schools for poor children because it reduced the required staff to a bare minimum, thus keep costs low. The down side was that educational quality was poor and often resulted primarily in rote learning with little real understanding of the material.
Lancaster's followers created a committee to encourage the foundation of schools (1809). The Committe became the British and Foreign School Society (1814).
Such schools were founded by local community efforts. They offered undenominational religious teaching. This was a disturbing aspect of the program to the English estanlishment, especially the Church of England (COE). As a result, the COE founded the rival National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church. The COE schools also employed the monitorial system based on Bell's principles, but relifious instruction was demoninational (Anglican) and the schools under the control of the local COE clergy.
Government Involvement (1833)
The British Parrliament took the first steps toward punlic education meaning state funded schools (1833). This meant England and Wales. Scotland had begun to state funding much earlier. Parliament voted money to be used to build schools for poor children. This was the first step in the British Government bcoming increasingly involved with education and prividing eductionl opportunity for even the poorest children.
Concept of Childhood
Europeans in the 18th century treated children essentially as small adults. They excpected children to become responsible at a very young age. Play was seen as idele behavior and discouraged. One indication of this was the fact that children in the 18th century were dressed as small adults. After breaching a boy was dressed just like his father. Some educators, however, were beginning to question this basic premise. A reflection of this was the skeleton suit which appeared in the late 18th century. It was the first outfit specifically made for children. The idea of childhood as a destinctive stahe of human development requiring destinctive approaches was a revolution in human thought. It was, however, not fully accepted in the early 19th century.
Teaching Methods
There was in the late 18th and early 19th century considerable debate about educational approaches. Teaching methods in the early 19th century were strongly influenced by English philosopher John Locke. Locke hs been called a philosophical realist. Locke insisted that knowledge had to be found outside the learner. He based his concept of realism on Aristotle's philosophies. Aristotle taught that each individual has to look to look at the woirld around him to seek truth rather than looking inward. Realists believed in using the senses. Locke and other realists believed that the role of education was to teach young people how to use their senses and stressed balance, moderation, and responsibility.
Locke wrote that children at birth were blank slates ( tabula rasa ). By this he meant that children were born without any knowledge or experience. The children will learn what they will be taught and then become what they were taught to be.
This fit in to the basic teaching approach employed at the time--lecture and memorization. Students were required to memorize information and literary/poetic passages. Many educators did not believe learning was taking place unless the children were memorizing material. Jean Jacques Rousseau in the 18th century jad suggested a differeing approach to education. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi helped to poularize his aproaches in the 19th century. Pestalozzi argued for educational approaches that encouraged children's natural playfulness and curiosity. Rosseau and Pestalozzi argued that children passed through destinctive lerning stages and that mastery of each stage was required to pass on to the next stage. Pestalozzi proved to be highly influential and had an enormous impact on education by the mid-19th century. He founded a training schools for infant teachers in London (1836).
School Uniforms
Modern school uniform styles emerged in the 19th century. Ironically the modern school uniform emerged not at England's charity schools which had for two centuries insisted on uniforms. Rather the modern school uniform emerged at the country's elite private schools where uniforms had never before been worn. Eton boys by the early part of the century were wearing long pants suits with short jackets, long pants, and what was to become known as Eton collars. This style proved to be enormously popular at the country's public (private) schools, although each school had their own differences. Most public schools, however, did not require uniforms. Boys competed with themselves over elaborate flasy outfits. Even at Eton, boys had considerable leeway with their uniforms and would wear brightly colored waistcoats. Actually many parents refused to send their children to the public schools and educated them at home. This was especially true of wealthy and artistocratic parents. Parents with boys that were not outgoing or athletic were especially warry about sending their sons to public school because of the often deplorable conditions.
