Public education has a long history in the United States. After the Revolution (1776-83), efforts to establish a national education system proved fruitless. The traditiin of decentralied control over educatiin was to strongly inbeded. The Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, conering all powersm not spefically granted to the new Federal Governmeny, to the states. This included efucation which became a state perogative. Not all states immediately assumed their responsibilities. The first state board of educatiin was not established until 1837 by Massachusetts. Horance Mann as the first secretary of the Board became a pioneer in American public education. Even though the states did not immediately create public school systems, local communities did set up schools. In this they were aided by Federal land policy. Nearly 150 million acres of land was designated for schools and yo support schools begininning with the Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 which provided that 1 square mile of each 36 square nuke townships into which western public lands were divided was to be used for schools. Addidional legislation in the 19th century provided furher funding. The principal of free public education for all was becoming well established in America at a time when the British conceived of public education as dangerous or only appropriate as charity schools for indigents.

Founding a Public School System

Almost ignored because oublic schools today are vuirtually taken for granted is thw American decision from a very early point to create a free system of public schools. hus was an entirely new revolutary program. During the colonial era (1609-1776), education varied greatly among the colonies on a regional basis. Education was not a matter mandated by the British Crown as England itself would not found a public school system for another century (1870). And had a strong tradition of private schooling. A few colonies required the education of all from an early point. This tended to be the colonies most fervently Protestant and influenced by the Puritans. Massachusetts was especially important, but this was generally the case throughout New England. Most of the colonies saw education as a matter best left to the discretion of parents. Churches and other community groups often played important roles, but what might be called private schooling predominated. Thus a child's access to education was limited by geography, religion, and family income. Race and gender were also important factors. While public education was limited in the colonies, there was a literacy rate above that of England and much higher than in most of Europe with a few exceptions, especially Protest countries such as the Netherlands. The approach to education changed fundamentally with Revolution. Many of the founding fathers were deeply concerned about education, none more so than Thomas Jefferson. And despite differing views on the role of the new Federal Government, there was a broad national consensus on this, including support from the southern states. As a result, the new nation set out to educate its entire citizenry--a remarkable program at the time. (German states were the only other country to adopt a similar policy promoting public education.) Witin only a few years after the Revolution, two major pieces of legislation set the Unites States on a its radical new educational effort. These were the Land Ordinance (1785) and the Northwest Ordinance (1787), both predating the Federal Constitution (1789). The Northwest Ordinance only involved a few states north of the Ohio River, but served as a template for most states, with the exception of most southern states as it did not cover the 13 original colonies, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. The Federal lands were used to fund the the creation and funding of public (at the time often reffered to as 'common') schools. In the South, tutors were the most common means of education for the planter class. During the colonial period, it was not uncommon for such upper-crust Southerners to send their children overseas to England and Scotland for their education at a boarding school. For the most part, where people received formal education, it ended at eighth grade. Secondary education was not commonplace for the majority of Americans until the mid-20th century. Private schools until after the World War II were primarily for the well-to-do segment of the population. This began to change in the 1970s as liberals began to increasingly began to use public education to spread their ideology, not uncommonly at the cost of academic standards. The result was the rise of home schooling and Christian academies. These academies were like the parochial schools, low cost private schools. This movement has intensified with the advent of more secular new private schools resisting the public schools introducing ahistorical conceos like critical race theory, the 1609 Projrct, Black Lives Matters socialist ideology, white privlidge, and Marxist hate-America ideas. This was done not by rigorous examination, but by cherry picking historical events and usually by comparing America to utopia rather than actual other countries. This was generally done quietly, but in the 2020s educators like Randi Weingarten, president of the American Federation of Teachers began to openly object to parents interfering with their indoctrination efforts. These ideas also leeked into private scghools, but here parents are able to pick and choose. And in the 2020s we see the introduction of a range of sexual issues into the public schools. Issues which many see better handled by parents. This and the decline of discipline expectations and academic standards has caused more and more parents to seek alternatives to the public school system.

State Role

There is no American national public school system. Rather schools have been seen as a state and local responsibility. As a result, the United States has more than 50 separate school systems. Ech stare has its own system and there are everal other because of Washington D.C., Puero Rico, and other dependicies.

Reflection of Popuar Styles

American school children, with only a few exceptions, have not worn school uniforms. The principal exception has been Catholic children attending parochial schools, although we are not less sure jut hen uniforms were first introduced. Many private chools also had unifirms. But for the most part, the clothing worn by boys at these schools reflected their ordinary dress, as few boys had multiple clothing changes. School wear at most American public schools (state schools not private schools in the British sence) has generally reflected American overall clothing trends. Many schools had dress codes which prohbited popular styles like blue jeans, at least in high school. So schoolwear was not entirely a reflection of actual styles, at least until the 1970s. American public schools never required boys to wear uniforms. This rejection of uniforms continued until the 1980s when many schools faced with rising discipline problems and violence began to institure voluntary uniform policies.

Figure 1.--The junior boys at this high school near Washington, DC are mostly wearing below the knee knickers with argyl knee socks. The photograph was reportedly taken iabout 1930. Notice two boys are wearing long pants.

Levels

The tradition of school photography developed in the late-19th centutyin America was well established by the 20th century aided by Kodak, the family snapshot was also becoming enormously popular and adding to the available image record, We have a huge archive of school portraits and photographs from all school levels from Kindergarten to high school. Nursery schools were not very common in tyhe 19th century, although Kindergartens were appearing in the late-19th century. The major educational system was composed of primary schools often called elementary schools in America. These as they developed came to be schools with 8-year programs. Most Americans lived in rural areas during the 19th century. This meant attending small 1 or 2-room schools. Attendance at these schools were voluntary. Laws requiring primary school attendance only became common in the 20th century. . This varied from state to state. All states adopted 12 -year public schoolprograms, but the transition from primary to secondary school varied among the states. Some city schools had 6-year primaries and junior high-schools. A minority of students continued their education beyond primary school to secondary schools until well into the 20th century. The proportion was at first tiny, but steadily increasing and was much higher than in Europe until after World war II. Here urbanization and the increasing prosperity and resulting extension of the middle-class was factors. American secondary schools were called high schools which completed a 12-year program of free public education. .

Location

Where children lived had a great deal to do with the education education that they received. For the most part around the world, formal education was an urban phenomenon. That was where the money was. Rural schools because of the low density of population created problems. That was where the schools were. This was the case even in the 19th century when some countries began building public school systems. America and Germany led the way, but only America committed to building schools in rural areas. Schools in Europe were open in village, but to lesser extent in rural areas. This may have in part to the fact that America was a very rural country, more rural than the European countries opening schools. And while urban populations steadily increased during the 19th century, over half of the American populations lived in rural areas at the turn-of-the 29th century. Another factor in America was the ideological image of the farmer. The Jeffersonian idea was small-scale agriculture, the idea of the family farm. The result was the Northwest Ordinance (1787) and the Homestead Act (1862) through which the Federal Government sold land with parcels reserved for schools. Land on which the school was built and land that could be sold to finance building that school. So as the frontier moved west, rural schools were create in in most states, even before the territories became states. And some evolved into urban schools as the population increased. The southern states were different which meant that these states had much more limited public school systems. The quality of education carried in these rural schools. They were small, often one or two room. The ages varied, often pupils 2-20 years of age, Rural children took longer to complete their education as they were often required on the farm, missing many school days. Educator Horace Mann complained that New England farmers housed their hogs in better buildings than those many early schools to which they sent their children. The quality of the teachers also varied. Low salaries did not attract the most capable people. This is why so many teachers were women that had few other employment opportunities. This probably was a positive outcome as many schoolmarms proved to be excellent teachers. By the end of the century, small rural schools was becoming an impediment. They were expensive to administer as many had only a few children. In addition, they only offered education through the 8th grade. And states were expanding secondary education meeting the demands of an increasingly urban, industrial society. Rural children for the most part had to move in with relatives are family friends to attend secondary schools. Another location issue appeared in the 20th century. The cost of administering large numbers of rural schools caused states to move toward consolidating town schools. his was made possible by Henry Ford and his low-cost motor vehicles. Schools for the most part were funded by property taxes. This created substantial differences in funding from district to district.

Public Schools Controversy

The public schools in America have not uncommonly been a matter of controversy. The United States in the 19th century was a leader in public school education. Provision was made in the sale of public land to finance public schools as settlers moved west. One of the greatest controversies arose during the Civil Rights movement over the Supreme Courts's decission Brown vs. Board of Education Topeka (1954) that school desegregation was unconstitutional. Subsequent bussing to dessegregate schools was even more controversial. Public school education continues to be a topic of substantial controversy. A major concern is that financing public schools by property takes has meant that the most poorly financedschools are often in low-income districts that face the greatest educational challenge. Many are concerned about school standards, especially in inner city schools are among minoritiry groups. Presifent Bush has stressed the need for standards and testing. Many analysts have blamed the poor stnadards in some schools to a lack of funding. A typical comment is "public schoolong currently faces a crisis of unparalleled proportions" because state schools are "bereft of financial support". [Giroux] Rarely are these claims supported by actual figures on public expenditure. Most statistics sho that punlic school funding is at or near record levels. Those levels may still be inadequate to meet needs, but the level of expenditures suggests that more than financing is envolved in the disappointing achivement at some schools. Major debate today swirl around vouchers and charter schools.

Special Schools

We note some destinctive schools.

Indian boarding schools

The Eastern tribes were lsaregly moved to Indin Territory beyond the Mississippi before the Civil war. The Plains Indians were desimated by the Indian Wars and the destruction of the buffalo heards. By the late 19th century the Western Native American tribes had been confined to reservations. At first schools were opened on the reservations, but in 1878 bparding school for Native American children was opened in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The Federal Government set out to transform Native American children through a number of boarding schools. Many children were taken from their parents and educated in these special boarding schools. The idea ws to "civilize" with the idea of assimilating Native Americans. At the time this was considered a humanitarian approach. Conditions at the school were very severe and most were rather stark facilities. Often the schools were located at some distance from their himes to make sure the children could not run away and try to return home. One of these boys was the great Olympian athelete Jum Thorpe.

Sources

Giroux, Henry A. The Abandoned Generation: Democracy Beyond the Culture of Fear (Palgrave), 234p.

Related Links: Careful this will exit you from the Boys' Historical Clothing web site, but both sites are highly recommended.

Apertures Press New Zealand book: New book on New Zealand schools available
School Uniform Web SiteInformative review of British school uniforms with some excellent photographs
Boys' Preparatory SchoolsLovely photographic essay of British preparatory schools during the 1980s containing over 200 color and black and white photographs.

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Created: June 5, 1999
Last updated: 4:13 PM 7/7/2024