Public education has a long history in the United States. After the Revolution (1776-83), efforts to establish a national education system proved fruitless. The traditiin of decentralied control over educatiin was to strongly inbeded. The Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, conering all powersm not spefically granted to the new Federal Governmeny, to the states. This included efucation which became a state perogative. Not all states immediately assumed their responsibilities. The first state board of educatiin was not established until 1837 by Massachusetts. Horance Mann as the first secretary of the Board became a pioneer in American public education. Even though the states did not immediately create public school systems, local communities did set up schools. In this they were aided by Federal land policy. Nearly 150 million acres of land was designated for schools and yo support schools begininning with the Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 which provided that 1 square mile of each 36 square nuke townships into which western public lands were divided was to be used for schools. Addidional legislation in the 19th century provided furher funding. The principal of free public education for all was becoming well established in America at a time when the British conceived of public education as dangerous or only appropriate as charity schools for indigents.

Founding a Public School System

Almost ignored because oublic schools today are vuirtually taken for granted is thw American decision from a very early point to create a free system of public schools. hus was an entirely new revolutary program. During the colonial era (1609-1776), education varied greatly among the colonies on a regional basis. Education was not a matter mandated by the British Crown as England itself would not found a public school system for another century (1870). And had a strong tradition of private schooling. A few colonies required the education of all from an early point. This tended to be the colonies most fervently Protestant and influenced by the Puritans. Massachusetts was especially important, but this was generally the case throughout New England. Most of the colonies saw education as a matter best left to the discretion of parents. Churches and other community groups often played important roles, but what might be called private schooling predominated. Thus a child's access to education was limited by geography, religion, and family income. Race and gender were also important factors. While public education was limited in the colonies, there was a literacy rate above that of England and much higher than in most of Europe with a few exceptions, especially Protest countries such as the Netherlands. The approach to education changed fundamentally with Revolution. Many of the founding fathers were deeply concerned about education, none more so than Thomas Jefferson. And despite differing views on the role of the new Federal Government, there was a broad national consensus on this, including support from the southern states. As a result, the new nation set out to educate its entire citizenry--a remarkable program at the time. (German states were the only other country to adopt a similar policy promoting public education.) Witin only a few years after the Revolution, two major pieces of legislation set the Unites States on a its radical new educational effort. These were the Land Ordinance (1785) and the Northwest Ordinance (1787), both predating the Federal Constitution (1789). The Northwest Ordinance only involved a few states north of the Ohio River, but served as a template for most states, with the exception of most southern states as it did not cover the 13 original colonies, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. The Federal lands were used to fund the the creation and funding of public (at the time often reffered to as 'common') schools. In the South, tutors were the most common means of education for the planter class. During the colonial period, it was not uncommon for such upper-crust Southerners to send their children overseas to England and Scotland for their education at a boarding school. For the most part, where people received formal education, it ended at eighth grade. Secondary education was not commonplace for the majority of Americans until the mid-20th century. Private schools until after the World War II were primarily for the well-to-do segment of the population. This began to change in the 1970s as liberals began to increasingly began to use public education to spread their ideology, not uncommonly at the cost of academic standards. The result was the rise of home schooling and Christian academies. These academies were like the parochial schools, low cost private schools. This movement has intensified with the advent of more secular new private schools resisting the public schools introducing ahistorical conceos like critical race theory, the 1609 Projrct, Black Lives Matters socialist ideology, white privlidge, and Marxist hate-America ideas. This was done not by rigorous examination, but by cherry picking historical events and usually by comparing America to utopia rather than actual other countries. This was generally done quietly, but in the 2020s educators like Randi Weingarten, president of the American Federation of Teachers began to openly object to parents interfering with their indoctrination efforts. These ideas also leeked into private scghools, but here parents are able to pick and choose. And in the 2020s we see the introduction of a range of sexual issues into the public schools. Issues which many see better handled by parents. This and the decline of discipline expectations and academic standards has caused more and more parents to seek alternatives to the public school system.

State Role

There is no American national public school system. Rather schools have been seen as a state and local responsibility. As a result, the United States has more than 50 separate school systems. Ech stare has its own system and there are everal other because of Washington D.C., Puero Rico, and other dependicies.

Reflection of Popuar Styles

American school children, with only a few exceptions, have not worn school uniforms. The principal exception has been Catholic children attending parochial schools, although we are not less sure jut hen uniforms were first introduced. Many private chools also had unifirms. But for the most part, the clothing worn by boys at these schools reflected their ordinary dress, as few boys had multiple clothing changes. School wear at most American public schools (state schools not private schools in the British sence) has generally reflected American overall clothing trends. Many schools had dress codes which prohbited popular styles like blue jeans, at least in high school. So schoolwear was not entirely a reflection of actual styles, at least until the 1970s. American public schools never required boys to wear uniforms. This rejection of uniforms continued until the 1980s when many schools faced with rising discipline problems and violence began to institure voluntary uniform policies.

Levels

Nursery Schools

Nursery or pre-schools are modern phenomenon dating to the indistrial revolution. Before that the ecoolomies around the world were based on agriculture and children stayed close to home. Public schools appeared about the same time as the Industriasl Revolution (late-18th century). Even when public schools began to be organized, the younger children mostltly stayed close to home. We so see some very young children at rural schools. This seems up to the teavher's disgression. Thir education was largely up to mother. And also about the same time educators began to talk about education and the special needs of the younger children. The Industrial Revolution meant that fathers and sometines nothers had to work at increasing distances from home. Before the Industrial Revolution, weaving was commonly done ass piece work at home. The Industrial Revolution shifted oroduction from the hime to a fsctory where labor-saving machiery was installed. The distances increased as larger and more efficent maschoneerty was deveoped. This all began in Britain and spread to the Continent. The process soon reached America. And as it did the need for child care increased. This was at first provided by Dame Schools which often was just day care with little real educatiion. Pre-schools were more adasnced in Europe with important educators addressing the issue. The first formal schools in America were Kindergarten based on German advances. We see some in the late-19 century in the major cities, but for most American children at the turn-of the 20th century, education began with the 1st grade at about 6 years of age.

Elementary schools

American public school children, unlike private school children, have never worn uniforms. Only in the 1980s did schools begin expeimenting with sdchool unifrms. Most American children went to rural schools until the turn of the 20th century. The clothes in rural and urban schools could be quite different. The clothes worn by children in rural schools were a good reflection of changing fashions. Younger boys in the late 19th century might wear ruffled collars and bows or sailor suits to school. Keen pants were common, until being repalced by knickers in the 1920s. Some younger boys wore short pants. Boys once dressed up to go to school, but that changed dramatically after World War II (1941-45). Eventually jeans and slacks replaced knickers as casual styles became prevalernt. Increasing problembs with discipline have compeled many schools to introduce voluntary uniform policies.

Figure 1.--The junior boys at this high school near Washington, DC are mostly wearing below the knee knickers with argyl knee socks. The photograph was reportedly taken iabout 1930. Notice two boys are wearing long pants.

Secondary schools

American educators began founding high (secondary) schools in the early 19oth century. Only a small number of children were involved. State after state after admissuion to the Union began founding public school systenms. This bssically involved elementary (primary) schools with proframs up to 8th grade, xhuikldren about 13-years of age. Graduall more and more high schools were establishe for teensgers, grades 9-12 meaning youths about 14-19 years of age. Attendance increased, but was still relatively small at the end of the century. These schools except in major cities were small reflecting the lrelstively imited attendnce. Few working-class youths attended. Attendance seadily increased after the turn-of-the 20th century, but continued to be limited. The Great Depression made a differnce (1930s). Few jobs were available fiofr youths. By thev timev of Wiorld War II, atendabnce was becoming invreasingly common, more common ghsn in Europe. Secondary schools have had dress codes which varied over time. Secondary schools through the 1930s tended to have much stricter dress codes than is the case today. Until the 1940s, completion of highschool was not something that to which all children aspired. Many children from low-income families did not go to highschool. Thus attire was influenced by the social-level of the students. Most boys at the turn of the century wore kneesocks or knicker suits to highschool, usually with long dark stockings. Often boys wore knickers right through school. Above+ the knee knickers were common in the 1920s. Jackets with Norfolk styling were partivcularly popular. It was not only the younger boys wearing them. This did not change until the 1920s. High schools boys in the 1920s gradually began wearing the below the knee style with kneesocks, but by the 1930s older boys were more commionly wearing kneesocks. High schools generally had restrictive dress codes even in the 1950s and early 1960s. This began to change in the late 1960s as part of the tumultuous social tumault associated with the war--which had a major impact on teenage fashions. America boys began wearing jeans in the late 1940s, but most secondary schools did not permit, although by the late 1960s this had begun to change. It was common through the 1950s for boys and girls to wear their Cub and Scout uniforms to school on weekly meeting days. Secondary schoolboys wore long pants to school by the 1940s. Dress standards were maintained until the late 1960s and jeans were usually prohibited. Currently schoold have dress codes, but all but the most bizare outfits are allowed. Boys at most schools are now allowed to wear shorts which currently means long baggy ones.

Location

Where children lived had a great deal to do with the education education that they received. For the most part around the world, formal education was an urban phenomenon. That was where the money was. Rural schools because of the low density of population created problems. That was where the schools were. This was the case even in the 19th century when some countries began building public school systems. America and Germany led the way, but only America committed to building schools in rural areas. Schools in Europe were open in village, but to lesser extent in rural areas. This may have in part to the fact that America was a very rural country, more rural than the European countries opening schools. And while urban populations steadily increased during the 19th century, over half of the American populations lived in rural areas at the turn-of-the 29th century. Another factor in America was the ideological image of the farmer. The Jeffersonian idea was small-scale agriculture, the idea of the family farm. The result was the Northwest Ordinance (1787) and the Homestead Act (1862) through which the Federal Government sold land with parcels reserved for schools. Land on which the school was built and land that could be sold to finance building that school. So as the frontier moved west, rural schools were create in in most states, even before the territories became states. And some evolved into urban schools as the population increased. The southern states were different which meant that these states had much more limited public school systems. The quality of education carried in these rural schools. They were small, often one or two room. The ages varied, often pupils 2-20 years of age, Rural children took longer to complete their education as they were often required on the farm, missing many school days. Educator Horace Mann complained that New England farmers housed their hogs in better buildings than those many early schools to which they sent their children. The quality of the teachers also varied. Low salaries did not attract the most capable people. This is why so many teachers were women that had few other employment opportunities. This probably was a positive outcome as many schoolmarms proved to be excellent teachers. By the end of the century, small rural schools was becoming an impediment. They were expensive to administer as many had only a few children. In addition, they only offered education through the 8th grade. And states were expanding secondary education meeting the demands of an increasingly urban, industrial society. Rural children for the most part had to move in with relatives are family friends to attend secondary schools. Another location issue appeared in the 20th century. The cost of administering large numbers of rural schools caused states to move toward consolidating town schools. his was made possible by Henry Ford and his low-cost motor vehicles. Schools for the most part were funded by property taxes. This created substantial differences in funding from district to district.

Public Schools Controversy

The public schools in America have not uncommonly been a matter of controversy. The United States in the 19th century was a leader in public school education. Provision was made in the sale of public land to finance public schools as settlers moved west. One of the greatest controversies arose during the Civil Rights movement over the Supreme Courts's decission Brown vs. Board of Education Topeka (1954) that school desegregation was unconstitutional. Subsequent bussing to dessegregate schools was even more controversial. Public school education continues to be a topic of substantial controversy. A major concern is that financing public schools by property takes has meant that the most poorly financedschools are often in low-income districts that face the greatest educational challenge. Many are concerned about school standards, especially in inner city schools are among minoritiry groups. Presifent Bush has stressed the need for standards and testing. Many analysts have blamed the poor stnadards in some schools to a lack of funding. A typical comment is "public schoolong currently faces a crisis of unparalleled proportions" because state schools are "bereft of financial support". [Giroux] Rarely are these claims supported by actual figures on public expenditure. Most statistics sho that punlic school funding is at or near record levels. Those levels may still be inadequate to meet needs, but the level of expenditures suggests that more than financing is envolved in the disappointing achivement at some schools. Major debate today swirl around vouchers and charter schools.

Special Schools

We note some destinctive schools.

Indian boarding schools

The Eastern tribes were lsaregly moved to Indin Territory beyond the Mississippi before the Civil war. The Plains Indians were desimated by the Indian Wars and the destruction of the buffalo heards. By the late 19th century the Western Native American tribes had been confined to reservations. At first schools were opened on the reservations, but in 1878 bparding school for Native American children was opened in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The Federal Government set out to transform Native American children through a number of boarding schools. Many children were taken from their parents and educated in these special boarding schools. The idea ws to "civilize" with the idea of assimilating Native Americans. At the time this was considered a humanitarian approach. Conditions at the school were very severe and most were rather stark facilities. Often the schools were located at some distance from their himes to make sure the children could not run away and try to return home. One of these boys was the great Olympian athelete Jum Thorpe.

Sources

Giroux, Henry A. The Abandoned Generation: Democracy Beyond the Culture of Fear (Palgrave), 234p.

Related Links: Careful this will exit you from the Boys' Historical Clothing web site, but both sites are highly recommended.

Apertures Press New Zealand book: New book on New Zealand schools available
School Uniform Web SiteInformative review of British school uniforms with some excellent photographs
Boys' Preparatory SchoolsLovely photographic essay of British preparatory schools during the 1980s containing over 200 color and black and white photographs.

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Created: June 5, 1999
Last updated: 6:52 PM 10/23/2022