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Portugal is one of the two modern countries that has emerged from the many small kingdoms that appeared on the Iberian Peninsula after the fall of the Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions. The situation was further complicated by the Morrish invasions of the 8th century and the 600 year war between and among Moorish and Christian kingdoms which did not end until the fall of Grenada in 1492. Portugal in fact was born from this struggle to reconquer Iberia from the Moors and the first Portuguese king was the son of a French nobel. Portugal in the 15th century burst on the European stage as the country leading the great European voyages of discovery. Here Prince Henry the Navigator was a leading figure in making Portugal a leader in maritime technology. This allowed Portugal to acquire great wealth through trade and an create an expansive empire. The corosive impact of the Inquisition on thought and discourse including the expulsion of the Jews caused a long period of decline during rich Portugal became a European backwater and one of the pporest countries in Europe.
The history of Portugal until the middle ages is inseparable from that of the other states of the Iberian Peninsula, now known as Spain. The region that would become Portugal was settled by the Celts around 700 B.C. It attracted a
succession of peoples and was colonised in turn by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Visigoths. Present-day Portugal became a part of the Roman province of Lusitania in the 2nd century BC. The name of the future kingdom was derived from Portucale, a Roman and Post-Roman settlement at the month of the Douro River.
The Visagoths (Germanic tribe) in the 5th century AD seized control of the region as the Roman Empire fell. Portugal at the time did not exist as a separate kingdom but was just part of the Visigothic kingdom. The Visitogthic ruling class lived apart and heavily taxed the Hispano Roman population.
The Moors crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in the eighth century. The invasion was launched by the Arab governor of Tangiers--Tariq ibn-Ziyad. He landed an army of about 9,000 men. (the rock of Tariq, Jabal Tariq, where he landed is modern Gibraltar). Visigothic King Roderick rushed south, but was defeated by Táreq's Berber troops near the River Guadalete (711). Roderick had won his crown in a civilwar and some of his defeated opponents joined the Moors. Musa, the governor of Ifriquiyya (North Africa) landed a second larger army of 18,000 men (712). Musa's Berber army had many Arab officers. He defeated remanents of the Visigothic army and Triq and Musa met in Toledo, the Visigothic capital. Subordinates swept through what is now modern Portugal. There were no major battles or substantial resistance to the Moors in Portugal. Thus commenced the Moorish occupation over Portugal and much of the Iberian Peninsula. The Moors and Arabs introduced their religion, culture, architecture, and agricultural techniques to the region. The Moors encountered relatively little resistance frpm the conquered peoples. The Visigothic (German) rulers never mixed with the Hispano-Roman population of the Iberian Peninsular. The people found they were more lightly taxed by the Moors than their former Visigothic rulers. Even some Visigothic aristocrats and Christian clergy accepted Moorish rule. There was a degree of toleration in Islamic rule that allowed Christianity to continue. The subject of conversions to Islam is noy well understood and historians differ on the degree to which this occurred. By the 9th century the name Portucale/Portugal was applied to a region between the Douro and Minho rivers. The Moors converted large numbers of people in southern Portugal, but encountered more resistance to Islam in the north. Christian resistance gradually grew into the Reconquista.
Almost all of the Iberian Peninsula was subdued by the Moors except for the extreme northwest. It is unclear why the Moors allowed this small Christian enclave to survive under the leadership of Pelayo. There are a number of reasons. A Moorish army failed to subdue Christian forces in the Cantabrian mountains (722). Here remnants of the Visigothic Gothic forces joined with local Christian defenders. The Arab defeat at the Battle of Covadonga in Asturias is often sited as the launch of the Reconquista. The Arabs were also defeated when they crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the Frankish Kingdom. Charles Martel defeated them at Poitiers (732). The Moors at this time undoubtedly had the potential of defeating the Christian remanent in the northwestern coenern of the Iberian Peninsula. The fact that this did not occur seems to have primarily resulted from divisions among the Islamic forces. Divisions developed between Berbers and Arabs and between Islamuc rulers. These divisiins absorbed the energies of the Islamic forces as they divided the rich new province. Divisions in the Visogothic kindom were a factor in the success of the Moors, the survival of Christianity primarily resulted as a result of division in Islamic forces.
Bermudo II, King of the Leon reconquered the territory between the Douro and Minho rivers (now northern Portugal ) from the Moors early in the Reconquista (997). As a result, Portugal became a fiefdom of Leon. Ferdinand I, King of Castile and Leon, in 1064 completed the reconquest as far south as present-day Coimbra. The reconquered districts were then organized into a feudal country, composed of Spanish fiefs. Portugal later derived its name from the northern most fief, the Comitatus Portaculenis, which extended around the old Roman seaport of Portus cale (present-day Oporto). One of the most powerful French nobels, Henry of Burgundy in 1093 came to the assistance of Castile when it was attacked by a Moorish army. In gratitude Alfonso I of Castile made Henry Count of Portugal.
Count Henry of Burgandy, one of the most important French nobels. After being made Count of Portugal by Alfonso I of Castille played a major role in the dynastic history of both Portugal and Spain. Henry was the son of Henri de Bourgogne (1035-72), Duke of Burgundy. He had ties to the Iberian Peninsula as his mother was Sybille de Barcelona (1035-74). He was born in Dijon, Burgundy (about 1066).
Alfonso VI of Castile wascthe most powerful Christian ruler in Spain, he declared himself as Emperor of "All Spain" (1077). Count Sisnando Davides of Coimbra, the leading Portugues nobleman, participated in an invasion of Moorish Granada (1080).
Almoravids tribe croosed the Mediterranean to help the Spanish Moors stave off Christian attacks. They defeat Alfonso IV near Badajoz (1080). Raymond of Burgundy and his cousin Henry of Burgundy come to Iberia to help fight the Moors (1086). Yusuf ibn Tashfin conquer all Iberian Taifas (1090). Raymond and Henry of Burgundy return to Iberia to continue the fight with the Moors (1090). Count Sisnando Davides of Coimbra died (1091). Raymond of Burgundy married Dona Urraca daughter of Alfonso VI of Castile (1091). Taifa of Mértola was captured by the Almoravids army (1091). Alfonso VI made Henry of Burgandy Count of Portucale (1093) and granted Henry control of Portugal and Coimbra (1094). Henry established connections to the Castillian royal family by marrying Therasa (1070-1130), an illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of Castille (1039-1109).
Alfonso gives the County of Portucale to his Therasa as a present on her wedding (1097).
Henry also began the campaign to separate Portugal from Leon.
He married his daughter Teresa Henriquez (1102- ) to ????. His son Alfonso (1110-1185) became the first king of Portugal. The Treaty of Tordesilhas recognized him as the first king of Portugal (1179). Alfonso I married Matilda of Savoy (1125-57). Their daughter Urraca married Ferdinand II King of Leon. His family line would eventually lead to the union of Leon, Castilla, Navarra, and Aragon and modern Spain. Alfonso's son became Sancho I (1154-1212) of Portugal.
The foundation of the modern kingdom of Portugal is generally dated from 1139 when Portugal became an independent kingdom, free from the sovereignty of the neigboring Iberian kingdom of Leon. The European map in the medieval era was very complicated. Many royal and nobel families controlled far-flug provinces often not connecting. Some of the nobels such as the Burgundians aspired to royal status. The modern Portuguese state can trace its foundations to just such a dynastic struggle. Burgundy was a fiefdom of the French king but rivaled the French court in wealth. Burgandy was enriched by the wool trade and moted for wonderful tapestries and textiles. Henry of Burgandy desired to rule independently in his Portuguese lands. On the death of his father-in-law and patron, Alfonso I of Castille in 1109, Count Henry, and later his widow, Therasa, refused to continue feudal allgiance to Leon. He invaded Leon and began a series of peninsular wars, but with little success. Henry's son, Alfonso Henriques, in 1128 rebelled from his mother's regency. The Portuguese Knights accepted him as King Alfonso I (1143). The independent Portuguese kindom was confirmed when the Pope recognized its independemce in the Treaty of Tordesilhas(1179).
Portugal became a focus of maritime expansion and trade when it's navigators sailed out to explore nearly two thirds of the world, greatly expanding the world known to Europeans. Modern nautical charts in many ways can trace their history to the work sponsored by the Portuguese monarchy. Beginning in the 1440s, Portuguese ships ventured further and further into the Atlantic and down the Southern coast of Africa. These navigators first accumulated knowledge of the South Atlantic (by 1487), then the Mozambique Channel (by 1497) and by 1502 accross the Atlantic to Brazil and Canada. After every expedition, map-makers for Portuguese kings incorporated information from the most recent voyages of exploration. By 1502, Portuguese cartographers were creating enormous master charts containing all the latest knowledge of coastlines, and oceans. Because these master charts were regarded as state secrets--few Portuguese originals (such as Jorge Reinel's) have survived. Most of charts known today are pirated copies collected by jealous Italian competitors--the Cantino (1502) map and the Maggiolo (1516). By 1505 and probably earlier as well, each of the major Atlantic ports also had a separate approach chart detailing soundings, dangers, and other information needed to guide sailors safely into port. Sailors and airline pilots today use separate approach charts for each sea and airport.
Jewish inhabitation of the Iberian Peninsula predates the Christian era. Portugal was Christianized during the later Roman era and Christianity was strengthened by the Visigothic conquest and subsequent kingdom. Dyring this era and during the Moorish era there was an era of relative conquest. This gradually shifted in the secons millenium as the anti-Semitism common in Western Europe spread to the Iberian Peninsula. Jews played an important role in ealy Portuguese history, especially the voyages of discovery. They were protected an honored by many Portuguese kings and were rewardedwith important posts. Finally Manuel I (1494- ) banished the Jews only a few years after Ferdinand and Isabella banished them from Spain. Manuel acted on the insistence of the Spanish princess he was to marry (1497).
Portugal played a major role in the great European voyages of discovery. Here geography played a major role. Portugal is the most westerly situated country of Europe. The Pyrenees cuts Iberia off from the rest of the Europe. Connections were by sea. The Iberian Peninsula juts out into the Atlantic Ocean. This meant that the country has had a deep connection with the sea. The main European connection with the East was the Silk Road, This put the countries at Europe's western perifery at a disadvantage. This began to change in the 15th century. Europeans began to grasp geographic realities at the same time nautical engeeering main important gains and the Ottomons seized Contstaniople, cutting connections to the Silk Road. Portuguese navigators moving south alng the coast of Africa, finally rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached first India and eentually China. Portugal built an empire which came to include the Azores, the west African coast, parts of southern Asia, and Brazil. Portugal was transformed from a minor European state to one of the most important and wealthy in the 16th century.
Portuguese historian tend to explain the decline of the Portugese empire to the rise of two other great powers, especially the Netherlands and Spain as well as England and France. Portugal was a very small country and could not in the long run compete with the larger European maritime countries. The Dutch eventually faced the same problem. But this was only part of the reason for Portugal's decline. Portuguese navigators and map makers made an important contribution to the expanding body of scientific knowledge. But the learning that made Portugal's maritime exploits possible dried up in the 16th century despite the wealth that poured into the country. Portugal did not participte in the scientific discoveries that transformed the rest of Europe. There are no important Portuguese scientists or technical inovations, even in areas like ship building and design. One has to ask why. And here one is led to the Inquisition that came to diminate bth Portugal and Spain. The religious intolerance that led to rge expulsion og=f the Jews and the search for heretics has a stifeling impct on all areas of academic query and thought. The result ws that POrtugal once more declined TO A European backwater despite the possession of an empire. While WESTERN Europe prpspered, Portugal became one of the poorest countries On the continent.
King Manuel II was crowned (1908). The young monarch was unable to control the rising popular demand for arepublic. A popular inserection and finally an army revolt forced King Manuel II to abdicate. This was the end of the Portuguese monarchy which dated to the Reconquista. He went into exile in England. A Republic was proclaimed and a provisional government assumed power. Manoel de Arriaga assumed control of the Government, but a series of short-lived, unstable governments followed. A new constitution was approved (1911). It was a liberal constitution which for the first time separated church and state. The new Government was decidely anticlerical resulting in strained relations with the Vatican. This and other liberal reforces would also alienate conservative forces which would reexert themselves after the War.
Portugal sided with its traditional ally the the British in World War I. The Portuguese Army even before the War began fought border skirmishes with German troops in East Africa. Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) bordered with German East Africa. German agents attempted to incite tribes in Angola which bordered on the German colony Southeast Africa (Naminia). The Royal Navy's command of the Seas, however, made German operations in Africa impossible. The Portuguese Parliament declared its support for the Allies (August 7, 1914). While supporting the Allies, Portugal did not actually enter the War for 2 years. The Portuguese Government seized German ships in its harbours (February 1916). Germany responded with a declaration of war. After formally entering the war, Portugal contributed forces to the Western Front. About 100,000 Portuguese troops fought in the War, both on the Western Front and in Mozambique.
The First Republic after the War began far-reaching reforms to reshape Portuguese society. The Republic approved a liberal constitution with major reforms such as restrictions on the Catholic Church. This angered conservative elements including the Army. In addition Portugal made little economic progress. General Antonio Carmona conducted a military coup (1926). He became prime minister, but in effect had dictatorial powers. He was elected president for life in a plebiscite (1928). He turned power over to Finance Minister Dr. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar (1932).
Dr. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1968) ruled Portugal as a dictator with Fascist trappings. He considered becoming a priest as a young man. He attended a seminary. He then studied at the University of Coimbra. Salazar religious convictions led him to a faction became involved with a political faction desiring to implement the social principles enunciated by Pope Leo XIII. Afrer receiving a dictorate, Salazar taught political economy at the University of Coimbra. He was elected a deputy (1921), but was apauled by parlimentarian politics. After a military coup he was appointed Minister of Finance (1926). He helped put Portugal's chaotic finances on a form basis. This launched his political carreer. He was appointed premier by President (GEneral) António de Fragoso Carmona (1932). He seized power as dictator with the approval of a new constitution. He proved to be the longest ruling non-monarchial ruler in Europe. He established a Fascist-like dictatorship, but it is probably not quite accurate to describe as a Fascist. Perhaps the deepest beliefs he held were religious. Once in power his policies were a kind of fusion of Italian-style corporate Fascism and Catholicsm. He created what he called the The Novo Estado--the New State with a new constitution (1933). The mismanagement of the 1920s contrasted with Salazar's competence in reorganizing the country's finances, even creating a budget surplus. He earned considerable support from the army, church, monarchists, upper middle classes, aristocrats and the right in general. SAlazar's New State was in fact a return to 19th century authoritarianism. It was both anti-democratic and anti-parlamentarian. His economic priciples are enfused with the encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII and other Catholic theologians. Especially important wereRerum Novarum (1891) and Quadragesimo Anno (1931). Salazar's Ne State was basd traditional Roman Catholic principles--order, discipline, and authority. He rejected Marxist class struggle and rather saw a social structure based on harmony and common interests and values. This is not to say that Salazar did not have differences with the Church. He finally signed a Concordat with the Vatican (1940). This altered the anticlerical policies approved during the Republic years. The Roman Catholic Church was given exclusive control over religious instruction in the public schools. Harmony sounds positive, but harmony was achieved by the Army and security services sippressing dissent. Salazar's economic policies benefited the wealthy oligarchy, but Portugal continued to be one of the poorest countries in Europe.
alazar's adoption of Fascist policies (political dictatorship, police state rule, bans on trade unions, strident anti-Communism, and corporatist social and economic policies) gave his regime a Fasist aura. As a result his regime was approved as sufficently Fascist by Hitler and Mussolini. There were, however, important differences. Historians difer on whether Salazar should be considered as Fascist. Salazar saw the corner stone of the state as the family, the parish, and Christianity. This was a fundamental difference with Fascism which sought to replace both the family and religion with aligence to the Fascist state. There was also none of the racist obsession that enfused German NAZIs. The question of how to classify Salazar is difficult. He certainly admired Mussolini and Hitler in many respects, especially their strong leadership and anti-Communist policies. He found the pagan, anti-Christian elements of NAZIsm repugnant.
Dr. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar ruled Portugal as a dictator with Fascist trappings. He maintained a neutral policy, but there were strong pro-Axis support in the country. Portugal also had a histoically special relationship with Britain that even preceeded the Napoleonic Wars. Salazar's adoption of Fascist policies (political dictatorship, police state rule, bans on trade unions, strident anti-Communism, and corporatist social and economic policies) gave his regime a Fasist aura. He supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War. As a result his regime was approved as sufficebntly Fascist by Hitler and Mussolini. Portugal was of some importance to Germany in World War II. Portugal was the principal source of Wolfram ore which yielded tungsten. This was a critical material because tungsten-hardened steel alloys had many military applications in machine tools, armor plate, armor-piercing projectiles, and other uses. The Germans pioneered the use of tungsten. As a result of these and other NAZI purchases, the Salazar regime benefited from the War. Salazar insisted on payments in gold. Here accounts vary as to the extent to which the regime profited from the War. NAZI inteligence agents were active in Portugal as were British agents. Portugal's role is complex. Salazar also cooprated with the Allies, especially as the German military situation shifted. Salazar leased the British important bases in the Azores for naval campaign in the Atlantic. Of course given Anglo-American naval power, he had no real choice. He also permitted Jewish and other refugees to escape the NAZIs by both boat and air.
Salazar retained power into the post-War era. His repressive policies help to keep Portugal the poorest country in Western Europe. The country was allowed to join NATO.
Nationalists in Portugal's last remaining colonies (Angola, Mozambique and Guinea) launched struggles for independence. The strains of fighting the indendpendence movement weakened the Salazar dictatorship.
A Socialist government replaced Salazer. A radical Socialist regime granted indeopendence to the African colonies and tried to brin about rapid social change in Portugal itself. A Socialist cobstitution was adopted (1976). The Government;s effort caused considerable problems, including a severe recession.
There were 16 governments formed (1974-87). More moderatecgovernments camr to power and reversed some of the actions of the previous Soclist governments, esopecually the nationalizations of large industries and banks (1980). The economy responded and Portugal has made great progress in joining Europe. Incone levels are still below the European average, but consuiderable progress has been made toward closing the gap.
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