Figure 1.--This is one of the earliest known photograph of an African slave in Egypt. We are not entirely sure if the Arab man here is a slave merchant or a man who purchased the slave. All we know about the portrait is that it was taken in Cairo during 1864. We are not sure who the photographer was.

Slavery existed for much of the 19th century in Egypt. Slavery in the Khedivate changes substantially. was not unlike slavery in Ancient Egypt. The great bulk of the labor force was the landless peasantry. Slaves were a small part of the labor force and concentrated in a few specific activities. Slavery followed the pattern set during earlier historical periods, most recently Egypt's position as a province of the Ottoman Empire. Slavery was similar in Egyopt to that of the wider Arab world. The Mamuluks were destinctive to Egypt. Egypt had access to as well as access to African slaves and until the early-19th century had access to the European catives of the Barbary pirates. There were both white and black slaves as well as male and female slaves. Slavery gradually disappeared in Egypt during the 19th century. Formal abolition was just part of this transition. Although defeated by the Ottomans and Napoleon, the Mamluks still had considerable influence in Egypt and important positions. They were annililated in a great massacre conducted by Muhammed Ali (1811). This ended their rule as a ruling aristocracy. They continued to play an important role in the military and government administration. Many Mamluks and other white make slaves were owned by Turks (non-Arab Ottomans) and increasingly wealthy Egyptians. [Baer, p. 147.] The slave population of Egypt during the 19th century was an estimasted 20,000-30,000, although there is no precise accounting. Certainly they were a small fraction out of out of the overall populstion of about 5 million people. About half of Egyptian slaves were concentrated in Egyot. The number of slaves in Cairo has been estimated at 12,000-15,000 in a city of about 350,000 people. Female slaves might be kept in harems. Wealthy Turks preferred Circassian females (white women who were primarily obtained in the Caucasus). More humble Egyptain harems were more commonly Abyssinians (Africans). While male and female Negro slaves were commonly used as domestic servants. Black slaves were used as soldiers as well as the decling number of Mamluks. African slaves were also used as agricultural labor, although this was a very small part of the largely peasant labor force. The estates of the Muhammed Ali family were worked by African slaves. [Baer] The supression of the slave trade was largely brought about by the British. The first major step was the First Anglo-Egyptian Convention (1877). One focus of the effort was the Sudan. Sudan was seen by Egyptian officials as a part of Egypt. The Sudan was more traditional than Egypt itself and a more austere form of Islam widely followed. And the slave trade was an important part of the economy whoch was not the case in Egypt. British governors were appointed in the Sudan. The most notable was Charles "Chinese" Girdon. Special missions were dispatched to supress the slave trade. The Mahdist revolution delayed the effort in the Sudan (1881). More aggressive steps were taken after the establishment of the British Protectorate (1882).

Slave Usage

Slavery existed for much of the 19th century in Egypt. And it was primarily harem and domestic slavery. Agricultural fiels=d slavery was not needed because of the large landless pesantry--the fedaeen. The great bulk of the labor force was the landless peasantry. Slavery in the Khedivate, however, changed significantly. Two cross-currents at play during the Kedivate. First Muhammud Ali expanded agicultural field slavery, primarily on his estates and those of his family and close associates. The use of Nunians/Sudanese as agricultural laborors expanded. Agricultural slavery was rare before Muhammad Ali. But as part of his modrnization efforts, extensive farming increase. Then after Ali died, there was a spike in world cotton privces as a result of the Ameruican Civil War (1861-65). The United States was the major citton pridycer in the wirld. Suddenly the Union Navy cut off cotton exports fron the Comfederacy. Slaves were also used on sugar plantations in Upper Egypt. 【Mowafi, p. 23.】 Second, at the same time, the British began forcing Egypt to end thr slave trade and then abolish slvery itself. Britain began using the Royal Navy to end the slave trade (1807). This was an enormous undertaking and at first limited to the Atlantic Slave Trade. Britain abolished skavery irself (1835). An imoportant eggort the end the Indian Ocean Slave trade began later (1840s). This, however, had only a limited impact on Egypt because much of the slave trade was upnthe Nile or trans-Saharan oasis caravans. was not unlike slavery in Ancient Egypt. Slaves were a small part of the labor force and concentrated in a few specific activities. Egyptian slaves included men and women as well as various racial and ethnic groups. Many of the white male slaves were Mamelukes. but they were not ctu; slaves. Although defeated by the Ottomans, they were retained as a ruling class. It was only Napoleon's invasion and the rise of Muhammed Ali that they were eliminated. The Mamluks still had considerable influence in Egypt and important positions. They were annililated in a great massacre conducted by Muhammed Ali (1811). This ended their rule as a ruling aristocracy. They continued to play an important role in the military and government administration. Many Mamluks and other white make slaves were owned by Turks (non-Arab Ottomans) and increasingly wealthy Egyptians. [Baer, p. 147.] Female slaves might be kept in harems. Wealthy Turks preferred Circassian females (white women who were primarily obtained in the Caucasus). More humble Egyptain harems were more commonly Abyssinians (Africans). While male and female Negro slaves were commonly used as domestic servants. Black slaves were used as soldiers as well as the decling number of Mamluks. African slaves were also used as agricultural labor, although this was a very small part of the largely peasant labor force. The estates of the Muhammed Ali family were worked by African slaves. [Baer]

Destinctive Aspects

Slavery followed the pattern set during earlier historical periods, most recently Egypt's position as a province of the Ottoman Empire. Slavery was similar in Egyopt to that of the wider Arab world. The Mamuluks were destinctive to Egypt. Egypt's geographic position was also detinctive, providing access to slaves from Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Independence

Muhammed Ali was appointed as the Ottoman pasha or govenor of Egypt. The French invasion showed the Ottoman weakness (1898) and destroyed the Mamelukes as a miklitaery force. Mohammed Ali gradually built his power base and moved Egypt toward independence. This was a gradual process, but essentially schieved by 1805.

Slave Population

The slave population of Egypt during the 19th century was an estimasted 20,000-30,000, although there is no precise accounting. Certainly they were a small fraction out of out of the overall populstion of about 5 million people. About half of Egyptian slaves were concentrated in Egyot. The number of slaves in Cairo has been estimated at 12,000-15,000 in a city of about 350,000 people.

Source of Slaves

Egypt had access to as well as access to African slaves and until the early-19th century had access to the European catives of the Barbary pirates. There were both white and black slaves as well as male and female slaves. White slaves in the 18th century were obtained from Barbary Pirate raids on European shipping and coastal communities. Egyptians were not major partipants in Barbary piracy, but some of the captives taken by the pirates reached the Cairo slave market. This source was closed off by first the American-Barbary Wars and ultimately French colonization of Algeria (1830). Circassian white slaves reached Egypt from the eastern coast of the Black Sea and from the Circassian settlements of Anatolia through Istambul. There were several sources of African slaves. This included routes across the Sahara and the Indian Ocean/Red Sea.

Slave Trading

The slave dealers in Egypt were mainly individuals from Upper Egypt/Sudan and the Saharan Oases. They were largely Bedouin and villagers from Bulayra province. They specialized in black or white slaves. They were organized in a guild with a shaykh. Cairo was the center of the Egyptian slave trade and slaves wwre sold year round. There was also an annual event--the mawlid of Tanta. [Baer]

Supression of the Slave Trade

Slavery gradually disappeared in Egypt during the 19th century. Formal abolition was just part of this transition.The supression of the slave trade was largely brought about by the British. The first major step was the First Anglo-Egyptian Convention (1877). One focus of the effort was the Sudan. The British began forcing Egypt to end thr slave trade and then abolish slvery itself. Britain began using the Royal Navy to end the slave trade (1807). This was an enormous undertaking and at first limited to the Atlantic Slave Trade. Britain abolished skavery irself (1835). An imoportant eggort the end the Indian Ocean Slave trade began later (1840s). Responding gto Britishb pressue, Egypt issued a royal decreee (firman) banning the imprtation of Zanj (Zanzibar) slaves, intened to end Egyptian particpation in the Indian Ocean slave trade. It is unclear hoe strictly thus was enorced.This, however, had only a limited impact on Egypt because much of the slave trade was upnthe Nile or trans-Saharan oasis caravans. Because of the imprtance of India, the British began taking an increased interest in Egypt. After the Canal was conplered (1869), Suez was seen as a magor strategic position. This brought inceased concern with Egypt. Egypt borrowed heavily and had trouble repaying the debt. As part of the growing role in Egypt there was invreasingb pressure on slavery. The Anglo-Egyptiam Slave Trade Conventuin was a majorv step (1877). And steps to en slavery itself followed. This was more diificult than the slavev trade because slavery persistd in personal relations even wgen bot endorced by law. Britain mafe Egypt a protectorate which meant a significant involvement ingovernment and and ministration.and effiorts to end the slave trade. Sudan was seen by Egyptian officials as a part of Egypt. The Sudan was more traditional than Egypt itself and a more austere form of Islam widely followed. And the slave trade was an important part of the economy whoch was not the case in Egypt. British governors were appointed in the Sudan. The most notable was Charles "Chinese" Gordon. Special missions were dispatched to supress the slave trade. The Mahdist was in part stirred up by the efforts ti end the slave trade. The further one went from Cairo and Akexabdria the more the slave trade persisted. This was especiallyb true in Sudan where the slave trade was stll an imortant part of the economy. . revolution delayed the effort in the Sudan (1881). More aggressive steps were taken after the establishment of the British Protectorate (1882).

Sources

Baer, Gabriel. "Slavery in nineteenth century Egypt," Journal of African History Vol. VIII, No. 3 (1967), pp. 417-41.

Mowafi (1985).

Created: 5:34 AM 9/13/2010
Last updated: 5:34 AM 9/13/2010