American Slavery: Origins

Figure 1.--African-Americans face a special problem when attempting genealogical research in that last (family) names were not used by slaves until Enancipation. The U.S. Constitution mandates a census be conductef every 10 years. The first Census was conducted in 1790, but it was not until the 1870 census that last namrs were used. This portrait does not have a studio indicated. There is a name. We think it says Joe Jenkins, but the last name is indistinct. Click on the image if you want to try to dechipher the writing. The portrait may have been taken in the 1870s. Curiously he did not dress up for the portrait.

Most Afro-Americans have have descended from peoples brought to America by force as part of the Atlantic slave trade. The great majority thus came from West and Central Africa. Some of the first slaves came from what is modern Senegal and Gambia. Gradually slaves were accessed from locations further south along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. And finally slaves began flowing in from cental Africa (Kingdom of the Kongo). This included some slaves from Angola. [Lovejoy] Slaves from southern Africa largely went to Brazil, in part becuse of geography and also because Angola and Mozambique were Portuguese colonies. Some Angolans did reach America, but most came from West Africa. Slaves from East Africa were mostly involved with the Arab slave trade network. Slave masters in certain areas durng the 18th century often had preferences as to the origins of slaves. These prefereces varied from place to place. For the most part such references gradually declined with the ending of the slave trade (1807). This meant that slaves in the newer trans-Apalachin southern states (Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas) primarily were related to slaves in the original southern colonies. Some slavers managed to bring in new Africans, but this gradually declined over time. By the tome of Emancipation (1863) few slave masters or slaves had any idea about orgins. Here Alex Haley's ground-breaking book Roots helped to raise interest anong Afro-Americans as to their origins. Here DNA work can provide indicators, however, most modern Afro-Americans are descended from ancestors who have intermarried without any concern for origins and thus have mixed tribal backgrounds. There was for more than a century no practical say of tracing origins, but now with DNA, origins can be traced.

Atlantic Slave Trade

A new outlet for Aftrican slaves appeared in the 15th century. Portuguese explorers began voyages south along the Atlantic coast of Africa. The Portuguese were looking for a route to Asia, but as they moved south they began setting up trading posts. First the Portuguese established trading posts along the coast of West Africa, but gradually moved further south along the coast. Other European maritime powers followed suit. This was the beginning of the African slave trade. The Europeans differed from the Arabs in that they did not normally conduct raids themselves, but usually bougth slaves from Arab slave brokers and African chiefs. Europeans built trading post and forts all along the coast of West Africa. From Senegal south to Cameroons there were about 60 forts that served as trading posts for the slave trade. The Europeans exchanged rum, cloth, guns, and other trade goods for their human cargo. The slaves were transported across the Atlantic Ocean primarily to Brazil, the West Indies and the English colonies in North America. Imense fortues were made in the trade. As the demand for slaves expanded, whole areas of Africa were depopulated. Scholars estimate that 10-15 million Africans were transported to the New World. The European African slave trade began during the mercantalist era. It continued well into the industrial era. In fact because African slaves played a major role in the industrial revolution in Europe. The ememse profits from West Indian sugar islands helped to finance the industrial revolution. And the raw material for the first real modern industry, cotton textiles, was produced by slaves. The slave trade was finally ended by the Royl Navy in the mid-19th century.

Ending the Slave Trade (1808)

Slavery was an issue that could not be resolved at the Constitution Convention (1787). There was agreement on a provision to end the slave trade. The new Constitution declared a provision to end the slave trade after a 20-year period. Congress after an extensive debate did 20 years later passed the Slave Importation Act (1807). The Act became effective in 1808 and prohibited the further importation of slaves. I am not entirely sure of the politics involved. President Jefferson's support was critical. There were several provisions to the bill, each hotly debated. There was, however, only minimal enforcement by the U.S. Navy which in 1808 was very small. At the time the U,S. Navy was miniscule and President Jefferson opposed naval shipbuilding. Thus the Federal government did not have a substabntial naval force to slave trading. But it was not only the Navy's ability, but the continued support for slavery in the southern states that impaired any effective American action. The Act only affected the slave trade, not slavery itself. Slavery itself was a matter that was the esponsibility of each individual state.

Original Atlantic-coast Southern Colonies

Most Afro-Americans have, however, have descended from peoples brought to America by force as part of the Atlantic slave trade. The great majority thus came from West and Central Africa. A factor here was British colonial policy and the tendency of slaves from Portuguese southern Africa to go nprimarily to Brazil.

West Africa

Some of the first slaves came from what is modern Senegal and Gambia. Gradually slaves were accessed from locations further south along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea.

Central Africa

And finally slaves began flowing in from cental Africa (Kingdom of the Kongo). This included some slaves from Angola. [Lovejoy]

Southern Africa

Slaves from southern Africa largely went to Brazil, in part becuse of geography and also because Angola and Mozambique were Portuguese colonies. Some Angolans did reach America, but most came from West Africa. No African-Americans unless recently emigrated have Zulu ancestry. The Zulus wee able to protect their people from the slavers.

East Africa

Slaves from East Africa were mostly involved with the Arab slave trade network.

Slave Masters

Slave masters in certain areas durng the 18th century often had preferences as to the origins of slaves. These prefereces varied from place to place. For the most part such references gradually declined with the ending of the slave trade (1807).

Trans-Apalachin States

Slaves in the newer trans-Apalachin southern states (Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas) primarily were related to slaves in the original southern colonies. And by this time, slaves in ghe Atlantic coast states had significanytly mixed. Few had any idea of their origins and most had mixed parentage. Some slavers managed to bring in new Africans, but this gradually declined over time.

Emancipation (1863)

By the time of the Civil War and Emancipation (1863) few slave masters or slaves had any idea about orgins. Here Alex Haley's ground-breaking book Roots helped to raise interest anong Afro-Americans as to their origins. He was able to work out some idea because of family oral traditions. Few African American famikies, however, have such oral traditions going back to their African roots and often their pre-Emancipation ancestors. The Constitution required an annual Census be conducted. The first one was dine in 1790. Slaves were listed, nut there were no last (family) names. Sometimes first names were not even used. One significant impact of Emancipation was that slaves got last (family) names. Now that they could legally maintain family ties, they needed family names. Some took on the names odf their former owners. Others took on the names of presidents. Some of the most popular were Washington, Jefferson, and Jackson--ironically all slave owners. For some reason, Lincoln was not as common. Quite a number of slaves chose colors, such as Briwn, Green, and White. Andcthese names were recorded for the first gime in the 1870s Census.

DNA Findings

Modern DNA work can provide indicators as to where in African black American originated. Most modern Afro-Americans are descended from ancestos who have intermarried without any concern for origins and thus have mixed tribal backgrounds. There was for more than a century no practical say of tracing origins, but now with DNA origins can be traced. Of course, the DNA evidence can tell us what areas and tribes people come from. Mitochondrial and patralineal DNA passes unchanged over the generations and thus can trace origins back to Africa. But as these were pre-literate societites, it can do little unless a massive DNA data base is assembled to male personal connections eoth modern Africans. The DNA evidence generally confirms the mixed otigins of most modern African Americans. [Gates]

Sources

Gates, Henry Louis Jr. In Search of Our Roots: How 19 Extrordinary African Americans Reclaimed Their Past, 320p. Gates provides a lot of useful information for Afro-Americans interested ikn genelogical reseach.

Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in Slavery (Cambridge University Press, 2000).

Created: 1:56 AM 11/13/2011
Last updated: 1:56 AM 11/13/2011