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The Big Bang created hydrogen and much smaller quantities of other elememts. For the most part elements other than hydrogen and helium are created by nucleosynthesis/fusion in stars. Ine of the huge gas clouds found in the universe is pictuted here (figure 1). They are called called nebula and consist of countless particles of gas and dust. Over time the particles are pulled together by gravity. This is the acretion process that eventually gives birth to stars. The vast proprtion of the composition of the Cosmos is hydrogen (atomic number, HN 1). It is the birth of stars and fusion that begins to produce helium in large quantities (HN 2). Stars fuse hydrogen into helium through fusion. Over time heavier elements like carbon (HN 6) and oxygen (HN 8) are formed, the very elements of life. As stars age and reach their dying years, they increasingly create the common metals – aluminum (HN 13) and iron (HN 26). These metals are then blasted out into space in the stars death throes--different types of supernova explosions. These larger atoms, especially iron led to the death of stars and no heavier elements are formed in stars. Smaller strs orm white dwrfs. Large stars expire in a supernova explossion. What was left after a supernova was a dead neutron star. (They are called neutron stars because gravity compresses electronsand proton into neutrons. We know no heavier atoms were formed in stars because astronmers can assess the composition of both stars and the unbelievanly dense neutron stars. And the composition is only iron and lighter elements. Many stars are found in binary systems. Our is on the smaller side of stars. And a bit of an anomaly. The large number of binary systems means that the collision of neutron stars is fairly common in the cosmos. The cosmic fire created by the colliding/merging of neutron stars is a neutron-rich debris in which huge quantities of the universe's heaviest elements are forged, including metals that have plated a huge role in human civilization: copper (HN 29), silver (HN 47), tin (HN 50), platinum (HN 78), and gold (HN 79). And one which may end civilization: uranium (HN 92). Uranium is the heaviest naturally occuring atom. Heavier atoms like plutonium (HN 94) are unstable and thus not found in any quantity. The elements aren’t created in equal amounts. [Gough] Hydrogen and helium are abundant in the cosmos, but there is a drop off for three of the lightest elelements -- lithium (HN 3), beryllium (HN 4), and boron HN 5). This is because they were poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and then the stars. Slightly heavier atoms were created in relatively the same quantity. Then there is what is known as the Iron Peak. [Erikson et. al..] After the Iron Peak, elements are significantly reduced in abundance. The Iron Peak results from the energy required for nuclear fusion and for nuclear fission and explain why iron leads to the death of stars. For the many elements lighter than iron, fusion releases energy and fission consumes it. For elements heavier than iron, the reverse is true: it is fusion that consumes energy, and fission that releases it. Atomic physicists call this binding energy.
The Big Bang created hydrogen and much smaller quantities of other elememts. For the most part elements other than hydrogen and helium are created by nucleosynthesis/fusion in stars. One of the huge gas clouds found in the universe is pictuted on the previous page. They are called called nebula and consist of countless particles of gas and dust. Over time the particles are pulled together by gravity. This is the acretion process that eventually gives birth to stars. The vast proprtion of the composition of the Cosmos is hydrogen (atomic number, HN 1). It is the birth of stars and fusion that begins to produce helium in large quantities (HN 2). Stars fuse hydrogen into helium through fusion. Over time heavier elements like carbon (HN 6) and oxygen (HN 8) are formed, the very elements of life. As stars age and reach their dying years, they increasingly create the common metals – aluminum (HN 13) and iron (HN 26). These metals are then blasted out into space in the stars death throes--different types of supernova explosions. These larger atoms, especially iron led to the death of stars and no heavier elements are formed in stars. Smaller strs orm white dwrfs. Large stars expire in a supernova explossion. What was left after a supernova was a dead neutron star. (They are called neutron stars because gravity compresses electrons and proton into neutrons. We know no heavier atoms were formed in stars because astronmers can assess the composition of both stars and the unbelievanly dense neutron stars. And the composition is only iron and lighter elements. Many stars are found in binary systems. Our is on the smaller side of stars. And a bit of an anomaly. The large number of binary systems means that the collision of neutron stars is fairly common in the cosmos. The cosmic fire created by the colliding/merging of neutron stars is a neutron-rich debris in which huge quantities of the universe's heaviest elements are forged, including metals that have plated a huge role in human civilization: copper (HN 29), silver (HN 47), tin (HN 50), platinum (HN 78), and gold (HN 79). And one which may end civilization: uranium (HN 92). Uranium is the heaviest naturally occuring atom. Heavier atoms like plutonium (HN 94) are unstable and thus not found in any quantity. The elements aren’t created in equal amounts. [Gough] Hydrogen and helium are abundant in the cosmos, but there is a drop off for three of the lightest elelements -- lithium (HN 3), beryllium (HN 4), and boron HN 5). This is because they were poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and then the stars. Slightly heavier atoms were created in relatively the same quantity. Then there is what is known as the Iron Peak. [Erikson et. al..] After the Iron Peak, elements are significantly reduced in abundance. The Iron Peak results from the energy required for nuclear fusion and for nuclear fission and explain why iron leads to the death of stars. For the many elements lighter than iron, fusion releases energy and fission consumes it. For elements heavier than iron, the reverse is true: it is fusion that consumes energy, and fission that releases it. Atomic physicists call this binding energy.
The composition of the planets can vary wiudely, both from the Cosmos abd other planets. Earth is one of four rocky planents in the inner solar system. Further out you have the gas giants which are believed to have rocky or metalic cores. The gas giants formed because the sun at such distances was too weak to blast away atmopheric gases. Here on earth we get used to thinkng that the heavier elements like gold are very rare. Actually they are much more common than you would think. The fact that they are heavier means that they tended to settle toward the core when earth was in a molten state. Thus the earth's crust, where all life is found, is primrily composed of lighter elements, but not the lightest, including: oxygen (HN 8), silicon (HN 14), aluminum (HN 13), iron (HN 26), and calcium (HN 29). The core of the Earth thus formed as a solid ball. Scientists believe that the core is primarily composed of an iron (HN 26) nickel (HN 28) alloy, roughly 70 percent the size of the moon. The importance of iron in the core reflects the relative abundance of iron. There are also large amounts of heavier elements such as gold and platinum. As a serendipoitous result of Peak Iron, that element is vital to human civiliation.
The Big Bang created hydrogen and much smaller quantities of other elememts. For the most part elements other than hydrogen and helium are created by nucleosynthesis/fusion in stars. One of the huge gas clouds found in the universe is pictuted on the previous page. They are called called nebula and consist of countless particles of gas and dust. Over time the particles are pulled together by gravity. This is the acretion process that eventually gives birth to stars. The vast proprtion of the composition of the Cosmos is hydrogen (atomic number, HN 1).
It is the birth of stars and fusion that begins to produce other elements, behinning with helium in large quantities (HN 2). Stars fuse hydrogen into helium through fusion.
Hydrogen and helium are abundant in the cosmos, but there is a drop off for three of the lightest elelements -- lithium (HN 3), beryllium (HN 4), and boron HN 5). This is because they were poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and then the stars. Lithium had attracted little interest until the invention of lithium ion battery (1970s). nut it was no ready for commercia;l productioin (1990s). This has created a huge demnd for lithium, an element earlier of little commercial use.
Beginning with carbon we see a range of modstly non-metalic elemments created in about qual quanyoites, until we reach iron (HN 26). Carbon is the basis for life. Life on earth has been described as carbon-based life forms.
Without carbon, there would be no organic molecules like proteins and nucleic acids. All forms of life depend upon carbon to some degree. Most proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids wjich hve carbon at the core. are centered on made of carbon. When they’re linked together to form large molecules like DNA or RNA, you get organic compounds. organic molecules contin primarily carbon and hydrogen. The number of possible configurations because of the structure of the carbon atom. There are also oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, an other atoms. Life on Earth probably started with organic molecules that were able to trigger chemical reactions with each other to create complex structures like enzymes and cell membranes. Also important for life was the importance of carbon dioxide as a green house gas helping to create a livable enriornment. As civilizatiin developed. Carbon helped to adavnce the already impotance of iron. Adding carbon to iron created steel. The production of steel in the 19th and much of the 20th century ws the very definition of a powerful nation. And in our modern age, hydro-carbons begins wsth coal powered the Industrial Revolution. At the turn of the 20th century there was a shift to oil, especilly for transport and military importance. It was a factor in World War I, but a vital aspect of World War II.
Aluminum is a light-weight metalral. Compinds of aluminum were known in antiquity. It was not until modern times tht actual aluminum ws produced through electrolysis, but ionly minute quabtities (early-19th century).
The French chemist Henri-Etienne Saint-Claire Deville perfected a chemical method of producing aluminum. He produced substntil quantiies for the firsr time (1856). It was very expensive to produce and more valuable than gold.
Commercial production finally became possible with ther Hall–Héroult process (1886). This made the mass production of aluminium possible. But there was not yet much demand. The demand came from cookware began to be produced (late-19th century). Aluminum gradually supplanted copper and cast iron cookware (early-20th century). Aluminium foil appeared at the same time. Thus is also when aviation industry was born. Aluminum was of some importance in World War I, but was absolutely vital in World War II. Germany began the War as the world's major producer of aluninum, but was soon outpaced by America and Canada. This ws because aluminum required vast quntities of electricity. The Soviets produced little aluminum, but this definincy was resolved by American Lend-Lease deliveries. .
Iron is argubly the most imprtant ekement in human history. An entire age is named after it--the Iron Age (1200/500- BC). It is themetal that has the largest reserves of ores on earth. It is also the stronest. Iron exists in such quantities because it it is rare major metal that was created in stars as part of the Iron Peak. once iron began to form in dying stars, the result was soon super novas. But it mean that there are krge quntities of iroin in the Cosmos. The coming of the iron age brought fundamental change in human civilization. Iron was known to civilized society during the Bronze Age. Iron is the fourth most common element on earth, much more common than the bronze elements, copper and tin, I was not, however, commonly used for centuries because it was so difficult to use. The basic problem was the higher smelting temperatures needed and which ancient metal workers fond difficult to achieve. Advances in metallurgy eventually enabled iron tools to be fashioned. Iron gradually replaced bronze over a broad time-line (bout 1100-500 BC). This occurred as metallurgical technology improved. Iron may have been used at a very early period (about 3000 BC). This was because the metal was so common, but for two millennial the usage was very limited because it was so difficult to work with. The time line for the more intensive use of iron varies geographically, primarily because of varied technological capabilities. The process seems to have first developed in the Middle East and southeastern Europe (about 1200 BC). For unknown reasons it developed in China much later (about 600 BC). Suddenly metal workers as technology developed began to realize the superior capabilities of iron (1200-1100 BC). It is at this time that we begin to see large numbers of iron tools and weapons and the rapid spread of iron working technology. As iron was so plentiful, ancient civilizations could make far greater use of metal. Even common people could have iron implements and tools. There were immense cultural consequences. New patterns of more permanent settlement developed. And iron weapons put military arms in the hands of the masses for the first time. Until the iron age, only very wealthy societies could afford the bronze weapons needed to arm warriors. And even wealthy societies, because of the basic agricultural methods, could only afford relatively small armies. It meant that ancient civilizations were commonly dominated by a small warrior elite. It also meant that settled agrarian states while rich, because of their small armies were vulnerable to the poorer, less civilized, nomadic steppe people. Iron created a new dynamic. Much larger armies could raised and armed. This made ancient civilization more secure from outside invasion, but also meant that the ruling elite needed more popular domestic support which was managed in variety of ways. It is for this reason that iron is sometime called the 'democratic' metal. It is no accident that democracy in ancient Greece first appeared during the Iron Age. And iron gave even relatively poor small states, like the Greeks the ability to arm themselves and stand up to the great Persian Empire. Iron has continued to be important, especially wih the Industrial Revolution (mid-19th century). And soon steel production became the metric by which the power of moderrn countries was measured. It was the American steel industry that propelled the United States into the industrial accendency that would lrgely detrmine the history of the 20th century. This would be the case in Workd War I and World War II.
Copper is interestingly the first metal besides gold humans mastered as they emerged from the Stone Age as well as a vital metal in the modern electronics age. Copper was the first metal because it has a low melting point and could be produced with very limited technology. In fact, it is postualted that cooper first was obtained when copper bearing rocks placed round campfires leaked cooper which humans noted and began to use. The cmp firesessentially smelted copper. The copper was at first mostly ornamental, but gradually a range of uses developed. But they were limited becuse copper is such a soft metal. But then n unkniwn brought spark invented bronze. His identity is lost to history, but we know that it first occurred in in Sumeria (about the mis-4th millennium BC). Bronze is an alloy of copper, by adding about 10 percent of tin. (Small amounts of other mnetails canb be added to produce a range of other characteritics.) What adding tin did was to urn soft copper into very hard bronze. This had a range of uses, but by far the most important were military. The result was that the period in which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is now known to history was the Bronze Age (2500-500 BC). The Bronze Age varies chronologically because the adoption of bronze techbology varied geographically. In western Eurasia and India it is conventionally dated (mid-4th millennium BC). It was later in China (early 2nd millennium BC). This never occured in occurred in the Americas, although Incan metalirgists did work in copper, mostly for ormentation. A major problem for bronze age rulers wa that bronze was very expensive. this limited the size of armies. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age (about 500 BC). Once the necessary technology wa developed, the cost of eoms fell nd nuch larger armies could be firmed. The imprtance of copper was a major factor stimulating trade in the Mediterranean world. A major source was Cyprus. There were some use for copper in the medieval and early-modern era. But it was not until electrification became important at the turn-of-the 20th century. The high conductivity of copper makes it vital element in the modern era.
Tin today is not seen as avital element, perhps becuse of the assocition with tin cns. It was, howeever, vital in the ancint world. it was vital in the ancient world. It was the tin added to copper that produced the bronze alloy that was so string and created the Bronze Age. Aincent states, hoewever, had a major problem. Copper is disributed fairly widely arond the world. Thus there were many different sources. This was not the case for tin. there were very few sources for tin in the Medoterranean world. the search for tin significantly exoabded trade. In fact traders could not find this vital metal with their normal trading partners, who were also looking for tin. They had to exit the Mediuterrabean world and go all the way to Britain to find tin. There were importnt mines in Cormwall. While this may not seem to be much of a problem goday, it was essentially a ventute into an unknown Atlantic world during the Bronze Age and the very basic nautical technology of the day.
Erikson, K.A., J. Hughes, C.J. Fontes,and J.P. Colgan. Progress in Understanding Iron Peak Elements in Young Supernova Remnants (Los Alamos National Laboratory: 2013).
Gough, Evan. "There should be more iron In space. Why can't ee see it?" Universe Today (July 11, 2019).
Steinhardt, Paul J. and Neil Turok. Endless Universe: Beyond the Big Bang (Doubleday, 2007), 284p.
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