Figure 1.--Britain was the first country to industrialize. It was birth place of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was born in Britain. It became the Workshop of the world for widgets to locomotives. Here school children are visiting the Swindon Locomotive Works in the 1930s which no doubt left quite an impression. Click here for a closer look. British industry was dominant for most of the 19th century, but before the end of the century was surpassed by America. And even in Europe there was stiff competiiion with the Germans. Much of the history of the 20th century wiud be determined by thuis industrail competion. Fortunately for humanity, the English-speaking people combined theiur industrail power to fight off the challenge of the totalitarian powers--NAZI Germany and the Soviet Union--hay Churchill called the threat of a New Dark Age..

Throughout history the primary sector for any substantial civilization was agriculture. This began in Sumeria at the dawn of civilization. Agriculture made civilization possible. And this was true for Neolithic Britain as well. Although mining was also of some importance, especially with the advent of the Bronze Age. This was because tin was found on the British Isles. It was the beginning iof the miming sector. Copper was found in multiple areas, however, tin was much rarer. Tin was needed to make bronze and the British Iles had it. As a result, even with primitive maritime technology, ancient merchants found their way to Britain. And this continued throughout the ancient and early medieval eras. During the medieval era, agriculture was the foundation of Feudalism. In Britain's case wool became very important. The modern European economy began in Italy with the Renaissance, but gradually moved north to the Low Countries, here the foundation of the economy became textiles. This did not include England, but England benefited because with its rich pasturage, it was the perfect place to produce wool, the raw material for the textile production in the Low Countries. British monarchs controlled the wool trade and tried to increase actual textile production. Gradually in the early modern era, agriculture continued to be important, but with the economy moving from feudalism to mercantilism, foreign commerce became very important. Slavery and sugar, related economic activities, were specially important. The Netherlands and Britain led the passage into capitalism and the Industrial Revolution began in Britain. This began with the textile industry with imparted cotton becoming the major raw material. Mining also became important because Britain had important coal reserves. And coal powered the 19th century Industrial Revolution. This resulted in the modernization of existing sectors and the development of whole new factors. Britain became the Workshop of the World. Gradually America and Germany emerged as major competitors. The 20th century would be defined by the challenge of the rise of Socialism and the challenge of the great totalitarian powers. America would dominate this challenge, but Britain would play an important role. And the various sectors of British industry would be involved in this struggle. Here the election of a Labour (Socialist) Government would have a major impact (1945).

Agriculture

griculture as in virtually all countries was the foundation of basically all human activity, businesses and professions as well as the arts. England was no inception. Yet until the modern era there is no history of agriculture covering the whole epic of English history. And often what we have ignores a key component--land ownership until the modern era. Small numbers of humans reached the British Isles (about 40,000 BP). Agriculture began with the Beaker people (5000-4500 BC) It took some 2,000 years for agriculture to spread throughout the British Isles. 【Pearson, pp. 17-19.】. Wheat and barley developed in Mesopotamia and Egypt were the major crops. They were grown in small plots near the family home. Domesticated sheep, goats and cattle were imported from the Continent. Pigs were domesticated from wild boar living in forests. When the Beaker people first arrived, there was trading between agricultural and hunter-gatherer groups. The Celts began arriving in Britain (about 500 BC). The Romans conquered Britain (1st century AD). Our knowledge of Celtic and Roman agriculture is limited. We know much more about subsequent eras. The Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings practiced open field farming systems. There was despite the Viking onslaught an expansion of farming (8th-13th centuries). This was necessary to feed an unprecedented growth in population. The production of large cereal surpluses was a major factor in the sustained the growth of towns and markets. 【McKerracher, et al..】 With both the Normans and Plantagenets, farm land was expanded to meet the needs of a rising population. Fens (peat-accumulating wetlands) were drained and forests cleared. This expansion continued until the bubonic plague/black death reached England, dramatically redicing the rural workforce (1349). Other economic activities included activities like animal husbandry, fishing, salt manufacture. basket making, and peat cutting. Animal husbandry might be considered within the agriculture complex. After the Noman conquest, the wool trade became the the major English industry, but as it was primarily the export of raw wool, it can be considered within the agriculture complex. Market towns and ports flourished as part of the wool trade. The medieval English wool trade was one of the most important factors in the medieval English economy and the impact on the economy was huge. 【Munro】 Following the Black Death and the agricultural depression (late-15th century), the population began to increase again. The growing population helped to stimulated economic growth, accelerated the expansion of as well as the production and export of wool. Gradually the English expanded textile manufacture and not just the production of raw wool. These developments promoted the growth of London and other major English towns which were beginning to become cities. 【Palliser, p. 300.】 Legume cultivation expanded to improve wheat and barley harvests. They were a fodder crop to improve soil fertility due to the nitrogen fixing impact. This was especially important in the sandy soils of Breckland/Norwich. 【Pribyl】 Agriculture boomed in England as grain prices increased an incredible sixfold (by 1650). Improvements in transport was a major factor particularly using rivers and coastal vessels. This made it possible for beef and dairy products from the north to reach London. The British agricultural Revolution began (16th century). It involved another major increase in agricultural productivity. By this time it was not possible to significantly expand the area under cultivation. An important development had nothig to do with England. The Spanish conquest of the Americas launched the Colombian Exchange, introducing two very important new crops: corn and potatoes. Both increased caloric production per acre. Today British cuisine without th potato is virtually unimaginable. Further expansion of harvests required technological advances--essentially the invention of modern agriculture. 【Richards and Hunt, p.7.】 Here two major figure were Jethro Tull and Charles 'Turnip' Townsend. New agricultural practices were implemented. One like the Enclosure has significant social costs, because it drove inefficient or unneeded workers from agriculture. But it both made farming more efficient and created a urban work force for the Industrial Revolution. Other innovations were technological: mechanization, four-field crop rotation, and selective breeding. This was needed to feed an unprecedented population growth. All of his was an important factor in the Industrial Revolution. Further advances included greenhouses, plant hybridization as a result of advances in genetics. Storage silos and grain elevators appeared in the 19th century. Even with the advances in agriculture, Britain was no longer self sufficient in food production (20th century). Industrial Germany was in even worse shape because they had made less progress in modernizing agriculture. But Britain as the 20th century showdown came with Germany, had a back-up plan Germany did not have--friendly democracies across the Atlantic (America and Canada) with virtually unlimited agricultural potential.

Communications and Publishing

Energy

Financial Sector

Fishing and Whaling

Great Yarmouth and Scarborough became imprtant medieval fishing ports. Herring was very important because it could be salted at the port and then shipped inland or exported.

Forestry

Information Technology

Manufacturing Industry

England became the workshop of the world in the 19th century. This is not something that might have been expected given European history. England was for most of history a European backwater. In Roman times it was the edge of misty edge of Europe. After the departure of the Legions. England was no longer a unknown land, but it was a backwater. As the European economy evolved, England was almost entirely agricultural and pastoral. This is not what would have been expected for what would become the workshop of the world. England became the major wool producer in Europe. England's rainy climate creates the green pastures perfect for raising sheep. The Medieval wool trade was key to the British economy. But the wool was shipped to Flanders, conveniently located just across the Channel, not woven in England. Flanders developed as the most valuable province of Europe because the burgeoning weaving industry developing there. The royal Government was trying to get more value added done in England so the monarchy could earn more income, but this was slow in developing. It is from this point that economists debate why it was that Britain would be wear the Industrial Revolution would occur. It actually would have made more sense for it to have occurred in China which was much richer and an engine of technological development. Mogul India was also richer. And in Europe France was a more populace and richer country. So what was going on in England and Europe was very important to understand. It is at this time that Spain rises on the world stage witht the end of the Reconquista and the discovery of the Americas (1492). Huge quantities of gold and silver began to flow into Europe. England had no way of sharing in this bonanza at first. At the same time, King Henry VIII began laying the foundation for the Royal Navy that Queen Elizabeth would use to begin seizing Spanish treasure ships. Not only did this earn England some of the treasure, but it is at this time that Britain began to excel at ship building and importantly began to standardize production, an important in the development of manufacturing technology. And England's began its maritime mastery with the defeat of the Armada (1588) as well as the first effort to establish an American colony at Roanoke Island (1584). Thus was amateurish compared to the vast Spanish Empire that was developing. The Dutch were earlier to get into the business of empire as part of their war of independence from Spain (1568). Which would lead the development of capitalism in the Netherlands. Something that failed to occur in the much larger Spanish Empire. It was from the Dutch that the British co-opted capitalism which is surely a major reason that the Industrial Revolution began in England. This was important not only for economic reasons, but because a modern financial system would be a major reason that England prevailed in the great struggles with France, a potentially much stronger country. A factor not often mentioned is the frugality of the monarchy forced upon by Parliament while the Spanish and French monarchies engaged in massively indulgent spending leading to perpetual debt. And about the same time with the Glorious Revolution (1688), led England to becoming a pillar of stability in Europe, another important factor. Another factor is the inventiveness of the English people creating the the early inventions that helped set off the Industrial Revolution. Just why were the English son inventive. We are inclined to think that England was emerging from the Feudal System faster than other countries, meaning that individuals could aspire and be rewarded for invention to a greater extent that countries like France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Spain more mired in the Feudal System.

Mining

The British Isles (England and Wales) have a long and important mining history. This began during the transition from the stone age meaning non-ferrous metals. Which of course was a major step in the development of civilization Britain was not an important early center in the rise of civilization. This began in the great River Valleys without metal. In fact what was important in Sumeria where civilization was born was mud. A civilization advanced metals emerged as important. This began with copper that lead to the Bronze Age. Copper was the first metal to be developed by man, because of the low smelting temperature required. But copper alone at the time had limited utility. Bronze in contrast had huge utility. During the Bronze Age, but it was a rare location that had both copper and tin--the metals needed to produce bronze. Copper was a fairly common metal, tin was much less available. Copper in the British Iles was first mined in Wales (2200–850 BC). One of the early mine was Great Orme. But it was tin that first brought what was to become England into the world economy. Bronze was developed in the Mediterranean World, but both copper and tin existed in Britain. During ancient times traders from the Mediterranean World reached the British Isles to secure the precious tin need to produce bronze. And given the limitations of naval technology, this an testimony to the drive to find tin. During the Iron Age, tin declined in importance, but other metals (including copper, iron, lead, and silver) that were a major draw for the Romans. The Romans introduced iron tools. and used local slaves to mine galena. his was one of many lead ores from which lead, tin and silver could be refined. The Romans used metals produced were locally as well as traded them throughout the Mediterranean World. Galena required advanced Roman technology as it required deep mines which were developed in what is now Wales.and Scotland. During the Medieval Era it was wool that drove the English economy. Wood was much more important than metal and the dense forests of the British Isles were a major asset. The Rise of the Royal Navy was done with wooden ships which led to the depletion of those forests. The American Revolution (1776-83) cut Britain off from a possible solution--the vast North American forests. All of this changed with the Industrial Revolution (mid-18th century). Just as Britain had the copper and tin needed for bronze, it also had th the iron and coal needed to produce iron and steel. The two were located in close proximity, vital before modern transport was developed. This was a factor explaining why it was England invented the Industrial Revolution. The other key element that that it was England along with the Dutch that invented developed capitalism. England's abundant coal resource was a major factor in its rise as a great world power. The coal was not only used to produce iron and steel which replaced wood, but with the invention of steam power to power shipping and the all important railroads. Coal would play a huge role in the English economy. Oil began replacing coal at the turn of the 20h century, but continued to be important into the 1980s. Coal was vital in the British victory and in the two world wars of the 20h century which essentially saved Western Civilization. he role of Bevan's Boys is not well understood. Metal mining is now virtually non-existent in Britain. The coal industry had declined because of low-cut foreign producers and environmental concerns.

Ranching and Livestock

Transport

Land transport thriugh most of human history was minimal. The vast proportiion of humanity was born and fied within a few miles. England was not exceoption. The only serious road building occurred during the Roman era. Land transport continued to be a major problem well into the modern era. Roads were undeveloped. Roads were dangerous places plagued with highwaymen. They tended to be tracks farmers used bringing their animals to the Market. Dicken's stories are full of illustrations of farmers walking their geese to markets. There were horse-pulled coaches, but they were slow and bone rattling. They could transport people, but not any substantial quantity of goods. The first effort in improving land transport in England was canal building, essentilly creating arificial rivers. Canals date back to ancient times, but Britain only began building them in modern times (18th century). Rivers were of very little use in commerce because most are very short and run to the sea. Few are navigble for any distance and none ran north to south. It was canals that addressed this problem. They could be built morth to south. They did not have thec speed needed by passanger traffic, but could move goods at low cost. The Thames is the one exception, eaabling London to become a major sea port. The Mersey with the help of the Manchester Ship Canal connected the port of Liverrpool with the manufacturing center of Manchester. . Ports were connected to other prts by costal vessels. Even after tthe adven of the rail rodas substantial British domestic goods transport went around the coast into the 20th century. The major anserr to land trabnsport as the rasilrofs which Britain invented. There were predecessors, but James Watt improved the steam engines first used to pump water from deep mines, but was staionasry (1769). Incrimental priogress followed and finally George Stephenson created the first really succesful locomotive (1814) and the improved 'Rocket' launched the British rail system (1829). Rasil son began connecting British cities provided for the inprecedented movement of goods ancd people. Isambard Kingdom Brunel would be va makor force in developing the British rail system. Steam power would be the dominant power system inBritish rails until after World War II. Sail powered ocean commerce for centuries as Britain came to dominate the seas. It was not just the Royal Navy that was important, but also British mrechant vessels. The first real challenge was from America before the Revolutionary War with the developing merchant fleet of the American colonies. The next challenge was from the American clipperships that came todominate the China trade before the adventb iof steam ships. Just as the rails would dominatre land transport, steam ships would revolutionize sea transport. And again Britain would lead the way. Not without mishos. The RMS Titanic was a British ship. But Britain developed the largest fleet of merchant vessels.

Sources

McKerracher, M, H. Hamerow, A. Bogaard, C. Bronk Ramsey, M. Charles, E. Forster, J. Hodgson, M. Holmes, S. Neil, T. Roushannafas, and R. Thomas, R (2023). "Feeding Anglo-Saxon England: a bioarchaeological dataset for the study of early medieval agriculture (Data paper)" (PDF). Internet Archaeology (61).

Munro, John H. "Medieval woollens: Textiles, textile technology and industrial organisation, c. 800–1500" in David Jenkins ed. The Cambridge History of Western Textiles Vol. 1. (Cambridge University Press: 2003). pp. 181–227.

Palliser, David M. The Age of Elizabeth: England under the later Tudors, 1547–1603.

Person, Michael Parker. Bronze Age Britain (B.T. Batsford: 2005).

Pribyl, Kathleen. Farming, Famine and Plague: The Impact of Climate in Late Medieval England (Springer: 2017).

Richards, Denis and J.W. Hunt. An Illustrated History of Modern Britain: 1783–1980 3rd ed. (Hong Kong: Longman Group UK Ltd.: 1983.

Created: 4:03 PM 7/31/2023
Last updated: 2:21 PM 2/14/2025