Figure 1.--Here soldiers with a British peace-keeping force interact with Guyanese children in Georgetown. The press caption read, "Making friends in British Guiana: With the threat of a Communist putch averted in British Guinan, British troops are shown as they befriend EastbIndian and Negro boys. Fusillier Brian Hibbott, on guard at the 'Carib Hotel' headquaters is shown surrounded by native children." The phitograph is dated October 18, 1953.

The Guianas was populated by the Carib and Arawak peoples (the same tribes that populated the Caribbean) and the Warao people. The name Guiana appears to come from the Arawak words "wai ana" meaning "land of many waters". The first Europeans to reach the Guianas were Alonzo de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci (1499). Spain founded some settlements, but did not heavily colonize it. Rumors of gold interested the other Europeans. The Dutch established settlements on the Pomeroon River (1581). The settlers were driven out by both Spanish and Native American attacks (about 1596). The evicted Dutch settlers regrouped at Kyk-over-al (Look-over-everything) on the Essequibo River. Sir Walter Raleigh headed an expedition to Guyana looking for gold. Without authorization he attacked a Spanish settlement. King James I had him executed when he returned to England. Here the Dutch West India Company established a fort on the Esquibo River (1616-21). Dutch naval power suceeded in seizing the Guianas from the Spanish during the Dutch War of Independence. he Dutch came to dominate the Guianas and called their colony Essequibo. British planters from Barbados and other Caribbean islands also settled Guyana. The Dutch and British brought in African to work the plantations as slaves. The European settlements were all along the coast. Efforts to move inland failed. The principal crops were coffee, cotton, and sugar, especially sugar. The poor soil quality prevented the plantations from being as productive as the Caribbean sugar islands. A slave nammed Cuffy, led a major revolt--the Berbice Slave revoly (1763). Britain seized Guyana from the Dutch during the French Revolutionary Wars (1796). The Dutch retook it (1802), but the Breitish took Essequibo-Demerara and Berbice again (1803). The British began to undo the slave system, in part to undermine Dutch influence (1806). The British naval victory at Trafalgur (1807) meant that no European country could effectively challenge British rule. The Dutch ceeded Essequibo-Demerara and Berbice to Britain in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty (1814) and British possession was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna (1815). A slave revolt rocked Demerara (1823). The British consolidated the two colonies as as British Guiana (1831). The British abolished slavery (1834). The freed slaves refused to work for the low wages offered. Many scattered inland into the bush mixing with surviving Native American tribes. Some Plantations closed. Other planters brought in indentured laborers, mostly from India. The colonial boundary between the Guianas and Venezuela was nevere fixed. When gold was discovered in the disputed area, now independent Venezuela demanded some of the area. The British rejected the Venezuelan demands. The United States under President Grover Cleveland threatened to intervene. This was the last major despute between America and Britain. The British agreed to an international arbitration (1897). Most of the disputed territory was awarded to the British. The Venezuealan Government excepted the award, but subsequent Venezuelan Governments have insisted that the boundary issue be reopened. Guyana achieved internal self-government under Cheddi Jagan of the People's Progressive Party (PPP) (1961). Jagan's austerity program led to riots and a general strike (1962). British troops had to restore order, but the weak economy cobtinue to cause problems. A coalition formned by orbes Burnham of the People's National Congress (PNC) won the next election (1964). Guyana gained full independence from the British (1966). The country proclaimed itself a republic (1970). Cult leader James Warren ("Jim") Jones staged a mass suiside (1978). The country implemented a new constitution (1980). Burnham was elected president under the new constitution. He died (1985). Desmond Hoyte of the PNC became president. Jagan and the PPP won an internationally supervised election (1992). Janet Jagan, (President Jagan's widow) took over the leadership of thd PPP/Civic and won the next election (1997). under the leadership of won a second mandate. She stepped down due to health reasons and was replaced by Finance Minister Bharrat Jagdeo. PPP/Civic won the subsequent elections (2001).

Pre-history

The original population of Guiana was Amerindian people. Unlike the general mpattern in the Americas, these people did not come from the north, meaning the Caribbean. They came from the west. All Amer-Indian people in South America crossed over the Darian Gap (southern Panama) by land or sea. Then after crossing the Andes in modern Colombia they populated the Amazonian Basin. This also included the Orionoco River. And the Orionoco led diurectly to the Guianas. These are then the people who populated alonst all of the Cariubbean. The dominant tribes at the time of the Conquest are described as the Arawaks and Caribs. The Warao people were also importsnt. .There is some disagreement anong anthropologisrs as to whether the Arawaks and Caribs were destinct peoole or the same tribal group, the difference being how the Spanish viewed them. They were semi-nomadic prople who lived principally by hunting and fishing in the rainforest, with a compment of basic agriculture. The the European term guiana appears to come from the Amerindian term 'wai ana' meaming land of many waters. We note Guinea was also used in West Africa.

The Conquest and Colonial Competition

It was the Spanish who first sighted the Guinans (1499). The first Europeans to reach the Guineas were Alonzo de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci (1499). Spain founded some settlements, but did not heavily colonize it. Rumors of gold interested the other Europeans. The Dutch established settlements on the Pomeroon River (1581). The settlers were driven out by both Spanish and Native American attacks (about 1596). The evicted Dutch settlers regrouped at Kyk-over-al (Look-over-everything) on the Essequibo River. Sir Walter Raleigh headed an expedition to Guyana looking for gold. Without authorization he attacked a Spanish settlement. King James I had him executed when he returned to England. Most of South America was conquered by either Portugal and Spain (16th century). The Dutch for a short period occupied Brazil resulting from Dpanish seizure of Portugal. Thus involved Portugal and Portuguese colonies as part of the Dutch War for Jndependence. The Dutch were eventually ousted by the Portuguese, but retained their hold in the Guianas.

Colonial Competition

The Guianas or northeastern South America was different. They were contested by most of the European colonial powers. Ultimately they were divided. The resulting political division was Spanish Guiana (eastern Venezuela), Portuguese Guiana (far northeastern Brazil), French Guiana, Dutch Guiana (Suriname) and British Guiana (Guyana). The ensuing British, Dutch and French lodgement in northeaster South America resulted from their naval superority and distance from the primcipal Portuguese and Spanish settement. There were no overland roads connecting the Guianas with Portuguese Brazil or Spanish Venezuela. The connections were all maritime, meaning naval power was the important factor.

Dutch Era (1627-1814)

Tentative Portuguese and Spanish settlements were followed by the first substantial effort which was by the Dutch. This was begun unsuccessfully at Pomeroon, and then successfully by the powerful Dutch West India Companyestablished a fort on the Esquibo River (1616-21). Another Dutch settlement folowed on the Berbice river (1627). And despite intrusions by the British, French, and Portugueses, the Dutch retained control. Dutch naval power suceeded in firmly inplanting Dutch rule in the Guianas during the Dutch War of Independence. The Dutch came to dominate the Guianas and called their colony Essequibo. British planters from Barbados and other Caribbean islands also settled Guyana. A factor here was the developing sugar industry which the Dutch first mastered. Sugar plantations were built along the coast. Efforts to enslave the Amerindians failed as they simply retreated to the interior and lived a primitive life in the forrest vastness. As a result, the Dutch and British began to import captive Africans to grow first tobacco, but then primarily sugar cane to produce sugar which proved enormously profitable. The Dutch also worked on drainage projects, especially around whatbis now Gorgetown. Some slaves escaped to the forest where the Dutch had trouble pursuing. They became known as ‘bush-blacks’ and adopted the life style of the Amerindians, on some cases merging with them. They supplemented hunting nd fishing with panning gold and subsistence agriculture. The Dutch and British brought in African to work the plantations as slaves. The European settlements were all along the coast. Efforts to move inland failed. The principal crops were coffee, cotton, and sugar--sugar was by far the most important. The poor soil quality prevented the plantations from being as productive as the Caribbean sugar islands. A slave nammed Cuffy, led a major revolt--the Berbice Slave revoly (1763). Britain seized Guyana from the Dutch during the French Revolutionary Wars (1796). The Dutch retook it (1802), but the Breitish took Essequibo-Demerara and Berbice again (1803). The British began to undo the slave system, in part to undermine Dutch influence (1806). The British naval victory at Trafalgur (1807) meant that no European country could effectively challenge British rule.

British Colonial Control (1814-1966)

Dutch colonial control ended with the Napoleonic wars in Europe and resulting post-War settlement . The Dutch ceeded Essequibo-Demerara and Berbice to Britain in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty (1814) and British possession was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna (1815). The Dutch and British planters had imported African slaves to work their plantations. We believe that most of Guyana's African population was imported during the Dutch colonial era. The British had abolished the slave trade (1807), seceral years before obtaining control of Guyana. The British not only ended the slave trade in their colonies, but used the powerful Royal Navy to launch a huge effort to end the African slave trade. A slave revolt rocked Demerara (1823). The British merged the three Dutch colonies into British Guiana (1831), but largely retained the Dutch administrative, legislative, and legal system, The colony was administered by an appointed governor whio was advised by councils of plantation owners. There was no colonial legislature as had been the case in the United States. The British abolished slavery in its colonies (1833). Not all slaves were immediately freed, but most were in short order. This created a major problem in the colony. The only profitable activity in the colony were the plantations, principally the sugar plantations. But the freed slaves refused for the most part to work on the sugar plantations. Not only were the low wages not attactive, but there was the terrible legacy of slavery. Instead they turmed to subsistence agriculture. The brutal Caribbean and South American sugar plantations had been essentially death camps. Some olntstions were absndoned. The ritish administrators authorized the planters to recruitment Indian (south Asian) and smaller numbers of Portuguese, Chinese and Javanese indentured wokers, leading to modern Guyana's ethnically diverse population. These new arrivals in time also turned to subsistence agriculture, but more importantly small-scale artisal crafts and commercial activity, opening small shops. The Spanish colonial boundary between the Guianas and Venezuela was nevere fixed. When gold was discovered in the disputed area, now independent Venezuela demanded some of the area. The British rejected the Venezuelan demands. The United States under President Grover Cleveland threatened to intervene. This was the last major despute between America and Britain. The British agreed to an international arbitration (1897). Most of the disputed territory was awarded to the British. The Venezuealan Government excepted the award, but subsequent Venezuelan Governments have insisted that the boundary issue be reopened. Britain gradually founded a public school system. The British did not take the first step toward a degree of self goverment until more than a century of colonial rule. The British appointed a legislative council (1928). Thus later begame a representative assembkly after the franchise was expanded (1943-45). Guyana was the one of the most populace British colony in the Caribbeana area. Thus several regional educational and political institutions were headquarted in Georgetown. CARICOM still has its headquarters there. The British introduced a democratic Constitution (1953). It followed the British parlimentary system. The Constitution introduced with a bicameral legislature and parlimentarian system, based on elections with universal adult suffrage. The first general election was won by the People's Progressive Party (PPP) headed by Dr. Cheddi Jagan (1953). From the beginning, however, Guyanese politics was deeply divuded along ethnic lines. The PPP was dominated by the South Indian ethnic population. The rival People's National Congress (PNC) which brokeaway (1957) was supported primarily by the African ethnic population. The British were concerned with the radical leftist direction of Dr. Jagan. They suspended the constitution. The British decided as they put it to 'mark time' in the decolonization process and the move toward self-government. They continued to administer Guyana with appointed officials. There were disturbances and the British under pressure introduced elected members (1957). The legislature immediately voted for more representative government. The British resonse was a constitutional conference (1960). It decided on a new constitution with domestic self- government. The PPP again received the majority of the vote (August 1961). Guyana thus achieved internal self-government under Dr. Jagan and the PPP (1961). Jagan's austerity program led to riots and a general strike (1962). British troops had to restore order, but the weak economy continue to cause problems. The British held further constitutional conferences to craft the terms for independence (1962-63). The ethnic divide prevented the leaders of Guyana’s political parties from reaching any consensus. They trusted the British more than each other. The only concensus was to finally ask Britain to settle the issues. The British sollution was a form of proportional representation (PR) designed to prevent any single ethnic group from domimating the indepedent government. All this was occuring at the time of the Cuban Missle Crisis which brought the United States and the Soviet Union to the pont of war. The British and Americans were anxious not to allow anither Communist Goverment to take power in the America. There were renewed disturbances, but elections were held under the PR system. The result was a coalition government formed by the PNC led by Forbes Burnham and a smaller third party--The United Force (TUF).

Independence (1966)

The Burnham PNC coalition gvernment finalised independence arrangements with the British. Another constitutional conference to adopt the new system was boycotted by the PPP. Guyana became fully independent and joined the Commonwealth (1966). It became a republic, but remained in the Commonwealth (1970). The PNC still led by Burnham won another election (1968). He remained in power (until 1992). There were constant electoral disputes. The PNC was hardly a moderate political party. The Government proceeded to nationalise some 80 percent of the economy. This was aprocess that occurrec throughout the Third War as partbod thecdecolomization process. It was widely believed by the new leaders that socialism was the a magic elixir to build a prosperous system. State ownership also facilitated corruption. It is difficult say which was more important, but the electorate favored socialist policies. The early independence years including the 1970s were years of considerable unrest and increasing economic failure. Like in other new nations, socialism simply did not work. The PPP still led by Dr. Jagan at the time was calling for even more radical socialist policies. The PNC answer was to borrow money which led to rising debt levels. Guyana was this faced with an inefficent state controlled economy, rising debt levels, and falling world prices for its exports. Cult leader James Warren ('Jim') Jones staged a mass suiside (1978). An ecutive presidency was introduced (1980). President Burnham died (1985). He was replaced by Desmond Hoyte. The scheduled general elections of 1990 were postponed twice. A Commonwealth observer team invited by President Hoyte reported serious irregularities in the voters’ rolls and proposed that the electoral preparatory arrangements should be done over. The elections were finally held (1992). A PPP–Civic coalition led by Dr. Jagan won nearly 54 per cent of the vote giving it 28 seats in the Nationsl Assembly a narrow majority. The PNC won 23, the TUF and the Working People's Alliance (WPA) one seat each. The Commonwealth observers were impressed with the electoral process. They described the elections as 'a historic democratic process' which accurately expressed the people’s genuine will. Dr. Jagan was sworn in as President. By this time the world had substantially changes. The Soviet had collapsed and socialism was ikncreasingly recognized as a failed economic system. Dr. Jagan suffered a heart attack and died (1997). Samuel Hinds, the prime-minister in Jagan’s PPP–Civic government, became President. Janet Jagan, Dr. Jagan'ss American orn widow, was appointed prime-minister and vice-president. Mrs Jagan from the beginning had been a important political figure. She had been one of the four original PPP founders. She had served in two previous cabinets. The PPP-Civic coalition won an apparently impressive victory (1997). They claimed 56 per cent of the votes. Mrs Jagan became Guyana’s first woman President and appointed Hinds in a carefully orcestrated switch. The the opposition PNC dusputed to officiually announced results. Increasingly violent demonstrations rocked the country. The violence only subsided when CARICOM brokered an agreement between the PPP-Civic and PNC--the Herdmanston Accord (1998). CARICOM agrred to conduct an audit of the election results. It was to be conducted by a team chosen by he then CARICOM chair, Dr. Keith Mitchell, the Prime-minister of Grenada. A broad-based Constitutional Reform Commission was established, and report to the National Assembly within 18 months. There were to be new elections within 18 months after the CARICOM report was released. The CARICOM audit team fond that the election counting process was less than ideal, 'the results of their recount varied only marginally from that of the final results declared by the Chief Elections Officer'. The PNC was disappointed with the findings. Violent demonstrations resumed. A settlement was, however, broakered at a CARICOM summit in Saint Lucia (1998). The PNC finally agreed to take their seats in the National Assembly. President Jagan resigned after suffering a mild heart attack (1999). She was succeeded by Finance Minister Bharrat Jagdeo. he Constitutional Reform Commission’s proposals were enacted (2000). A permanent elections commission and new national identity cards. PPP/Civic won the subsequent elections (2001).

Created: 10:46 PM 9/30/2020
Last updated: 10:46 PM 9/30/2020