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Archeologists have found evidence of human habitation dating to about 13,000 BC. No major Native American civilizations developed. The less-civilized tribes not only stop the expansion of the Incas south, but also proved more difficult for the Spanish Conquistadores to overwealm. Spanish Conquistadores reached modern Argentina (16th century). Juan de Solís landed in Plata estuary, but was repelled by the Native Americans (1516). Magellan mainland lanfall (1520) during his circumnavigation expedition. Another expedition was repelled (1527). Pedro de Mendoza founded Buenos Aires (1536), but was forced by Native American attacks to abandon it. Garay leading an expedition from Asunción refounded Buenos Aires (1580). Buenos Aires became the capital of the Spanish vice-royalty (1776). The British destroyed the French-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar (1805). Napoleon invaded Spain launching the Peninsular Wars (1806). A weakened Spain faced revolts in its American colonies. Argentines led by Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and San Martín waged a successful war of independence (1810-16). After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna restored the Old Regime in Europe, but the British Royal Navy prevented the restoration of colonial rule in the Americas. Indepedence was followed by a civil war until Juan Manuel de Rosas imposed a dictatorship (1829-52). Urquiza deposed him (1852) and a new constitution was adopted. This constitution with amendments (1860, 1866, and 1898) was the basic govermental structure until 1949. Civil strife and military coups continued to plague the country. The ongoing border dispute with Chile was resolved (1902). Argentina was a destination for European emigration, especially from Italy. The country remained neutral in World War I, but benefitted from war orders. The country's military leaders were sympathetic to the Axis in World War II. The country again benefitted from war orders. The country seem posed to make the transition to a developed economy, but sucumed to the alures of populalist leader, Col. Juan Peron. His regimes was widely supported by a coalition of workers, catholics, nationalists, and the Army, but chaotic policies severly damaged the economy which has never fully recovered. The declining economy eroded his popularity and he was over thrown by the Argentine Army (1958). Civilian governments failed to arrest the economic decline or deal with a communist insurgency and the Army seized power (1966). The Army conducted a brutal campaign which did destroy the communist insurgency, but in the process many mostly young people disappeared, meaning were tirtured and killed by the military. The military Junta in an effort to regain popularity, invaded the Falkland Islands (1982). British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher ordered the military to retake the Islands. Military failure finally resulted in the fall of the Argentine Junta and the restoration of democratic rule.
Archeologists have found evidence of human habitation dating to about 13,000 BC. No major Native American civilizations developed. The less-civilized tribes not only stop the expansion of the Incas south, but also proved more difficult for the Spanish Conquistadores to overwealm. Several Native American tribes inhabited modern Argentina at the time of the 15th century Spanish conquest. These included the Tehuelches, Rehuelches, Rampas, Matacos, Guaycures, Huerpes, Diaguitas, Mapuches, and others less well known tribal groups. The groups had prevented the Incas in Peru and Bolivia from expanding south into northern Argentina.
It was Portuguese explorrs that pushed moved south along the Atlantic coast of south America. And while they established the colony of Brazil, it was the Spanish who dominated in the far south. Spanish Conquistadores first reached the Rio de la Plata estuary (16th century). Juan de Solís landed therey, but was repelled by the Native Americans (1516). Magellan mainland lanfall (1520) during his circumnavigation expedition. Another Spanish expedition was repelled (1527). Sebastian Cabot and Diego García Sailed inland into the estuary and up the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers (1527). They festanlished the settlement of Sancti Spiritus where the Cañada and Coronda Rivers joined close to the Paraná. The small settlement could not hold out against hostile Native Americans and the settlement was destroyed (1529). Cabot and García were forced to return to Spain. It was Pedro de Mendoza with a much larger and better equiped force that established Santa María del Buenos Aire (1536). This of course was the beginning of the modern city ofBuenos Aires. Mendoza's force was well armed and equipped with horses. Even so resistance from the Native Americans was fierce and this settlement also had to be abandoned and Mendoza returned to Spain. Berfore this occurred, however, Mendoza had dispatched a small group commanded by Juan de Ayolas up the Paraná River. Ayolas himself set out on an expedition to reach Peru which by that time was already firmly in Spanish hands. Ayolas never reaced Peru and his fate his lost to history. Domingo Martínez de Irala, a Conquistador of Basque origins, was elected by the larger body in what is now Paraguay as their leader. As a result, he has the destinction of being the first democratically elected official in the Americas. He founded the first cabildo in the Americas at Asunción (1537). Many survivors of the Buen Aire settlement which continued to threatened by hostile Native Americans moved to Asunción. The Natives Americans in Paraguay were friendlier giving the settlement a chance to get established. There were no further expeditions directly from Spain after Mendoza's failure.
Irala proved to be a forceful and energetic govenor. Irala oversaw the founding of towns throughout Paraguay. The Spanish stamp was slowly placed on the colony. The settlers erected churches and public buildings
The less fierce Native Americans were subjugated and distributed among the colonists in encomiendas--esentialy becoming serfs in a feudal system. The Asunción settlement thrived and became the ceter from which Argentina was eventually colonized. A force from Asunción sent established Santa Fé (1573). Juan de Garay refounded the settlement at Buenos Aires (1580). This was a key step because of the strategic importance of the port. Resistance from the Native Americans continued, but under Garay's successor, Hernando Arias de Saavedra (1592-1614), finally suceeded in making Buenos Aires a secure Spanish colony. While no expeditions from Spain followed Mendiza, there were expeditions from the Spanish colonies in both Peru and Chile. These expeditions suceeded in founding the erliest cities in Argentina located in the eastern foothills of the Andes. The Spanish from Peru following the Inca roads founded Santiago del Estero, Tucumún, Córdoba, Salta, La Rioja and San Salvador de Jujuy. The Spanish from Chile founded San Juan, Mendoza, and San Luis. As a result Sopanish rule in northern Argentina was firmly established by te end of the 16th century.
Spain created the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata (1776). It included modern Chile, Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, and part of Bolivia. The capital was Buenos Aires. A strong commercial bourgeoisie class developed in the city.
The Spanish brought horses and cattle with them. Some animals inevtably escaped and populated the fertile and largely virgin pampas. Until the arrival of the Spanish there were no heards of large grazing animals--umlike the North American grasslands populated by bufalo. The livestock of thepampas gave rise to the gaucho. They used the cattle for food and clothing and the horses for hunting and managng the cattle as well as for transportation. The term "gaucho" is not Spanish. It is apparently Quechua in orgin. Quechua was the language of the Inca and meant 'orphan' or 'vagabond'. The first recorded us of the term in Argentine Spanish dates to the early 19th century at the tie of independence (1816). Gauchos as a life style, however, appears to have begun un the 17th century and commonly reported during the Spanish colonial period.
The Agentine gaucho might exist independently or work on the huge cattle estancias (estates/ranches). They were noted for drinking, but their drink of preference was not beer or whiskey, but mate, a mildly narcotic herb/grass sipped from a gourd. Gambling was another favored diversion. Their reputtion was at first uncouth ruffians. The estancias produced th emajor Argentine export commodity during the Spanish era. It was not beef, however, but leather. There was no way of transporting beef, except by salting it which limited he market. Thus it was leather than was the principa; commodity. There was a massive demand for leather which was used for clothing, footwear, livestock reins and saddles. This created both commercial and military demand. Thus after the cattle were slaughtered for the leather, most of the meat was simply discarded. The gauchos consumed large quantities which they rosted over open fires in the open--carne asado akin to American barbeque. This gradually became the Arguntine national dish. The independent-minded gauchos played a role in the wars for independence. Their superb horse skills made them valuable calvalry men. This helped to change their image to one of respect. And because of their military importance for a time played a political role. Gradually laws affecting freedom of movement and property rights as well as mass immigration from Europe effectively ended the the era of the true gaucho (late-19th century). The same occurred to the cowboys in America. And like the cowboy in America, the gaucho passed into the myth and became a revered symbol of Argentine national identity.
The British destroyed the French-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar (1805). Napoleon invaded Spain launching the Peninsular Wars (1806). A weakened Spain faced revolts in its American colonies. The Cabildo of Buenos Aires deposed the Spanish viceroy and proclaimed that it was governing in the name of King Fernando VII, at the time a captive of Napoleon (1810). This was in fact the beginning of the independence struggle.
The core of the independence movement was the prosperous commercial bourgeoisie class in Buenos Aires. They had longed chafed under the commercial restructions mposed by Spanish colonial regulations.
Argentines led by Belgrano, Pueyrredón, and San Martín waged a successful war of independence (1810-16). After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna restored the Old Regime in Europe, but the British Royal Navy prevented the restoration of colonial rule in the Americas. Modern Argentina emerged from the revolutionary struggle. Representatives of the various Spanish provinces convened at Tucumún (March 1816). They proclaimed independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of South America (later United Provinces of the Río de la Plata--United Provinces of Río de la Plata (Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata) (July 1816). The delegates chose a "supreme" director, but were unable to reach agreement on a constutution.
Indepedence was followed by a destructive civil war. Argentines were unable to agree as to the form of government tht would replace the Spabish colonial regime. Many delegates led by the Porteños desired
a constitutional monarchy. This conervative approach seemed the most secure system at the time. The rest of the world was riled by monarchy, except the very new and relatively unimportant United States. Republicanism to mny brought up images of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. With the success of Bolívar in the nort and his promotion of a constitutional republic, the Porteños gradually shifted to supporting a republic with a string central government. This was resisted by the delegates of the other provinces who saw it as an attempt by the Porteños to dominate the new government. They advocated a federal system granting much authoity to the provinces. Tensions escalated between these two contending factions leading to the outbreak of civil war (1819).
The Civil War did not end until Juan Manuel de Rosas imposed a dictatorship (1829-52).
Urquiza deposed Ross (1852) and a new constitution was adopted. This constitution with amendments (1860, 1866, and 1898) was the basic govermental structure until 1949. Civil strife and military coups continued to plague the country. The ongoing border dispute with Chile was resolved (1902).
Immigration primarily from Europe significantly has played a major role in many Latin Americn countries. Some countries have important indigenous population. Other countries like Argentina is mostly populated by Euopeans. European immigration was especially important in Argentina. It began after independence in 1810, but the principal years were 1880-1910. Many Itlalians immigrated to Argentina, but there were immigrants from many other countries as well, including Spain and England. In the case of Argentina, the social, political and economical crisis of 2002 have caused a substantial reverse migration with many with mant people, usually the father, emmigrting to Spain, the United States, and other countries. In many cases, the emmigrants choose the country they or their ancestors came from.
Argentina remained neutral in World War I. Given the many European immigrants, however, there were groups in the country clamoring for Argentina to enter the War. Many Argentines of British and German ancestry rushed to Europe to join the fight. After Italy etered the War, many Italian immigrants demnded that Argentina enter the War. Influential British cattle barrons also wanted Argentina to enter the War. The Argentinr intelectual community was influenced by French and also favored the Allies. The small German community supported the Faterland. President Hipolyto Irigoyen was committed to neutrality. His main focus was on how Argentina could benefit economically from the increasing war orders. There is no real definitive assessment of public opinion, but outside immigrant group there does not seem to have been any real public desire to enter the War. After America enterecthe War (1917), President Irigoyen seems to have been even more cmmitted to staying out of the War. President Wilson asked the still neutral countries to follow the U.S. and sever relations with Germany. The Argentine government declined explaining that it was distant from the conflict. Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare campaign resulted in the sinking of two Argentine ships. This provoked large anti-German demonstrations in Buenos Aires. German Foreign Minister Alfred Zimmerman offered to apologize and to have the Argentine flag saluted. U-boats proceeded to sink two more Argentine ships. The Argentina Government presented an ultimatum to the Germans. The German response was slow and basically unsatisfactory. The Germans promised to investigate any further incidents and if proven to be at fault make reparations. The German Government then agreed not to sink any further Argentine ships. Argentina agrees to sell surplus wheat to Britain and France (September 1918). This helped to substantially reduce the problem of surplus agricukltural production. Argentina thus at the end of the War was a highly prosperous country free of foreign debts for the first time. The Latin American nations that had declared war or broken relations with Germany were invited to the Paris Peace Conference. Argenina as it did not declare war was not invited.
Argentina is almost unique among Latin American countries in that the population is largely of European extraction. The countries indigenous population was largely exterminated. Thus the countries national view was always largely European. The most important immigrant groups were Italian, Spanish, and German. As a result there was considerable support for both Fascism and the Axis in Argentina. Groups like the Alianza Juventud Nacionalista openly supported the Axis. FBI agents played major role in uncovering NAZI agents in other Latin American countries, but the Argentune Government refused to act against NAZI agents. These agents found considerable support from the German community which tended to maintain itself separate from large Argentine society. There were entire towns that were essentially German with German-speaking schools. Many of the communities adopted NAZI models. Argentines as a whole supported the Allies, but the Argentine Army was strongly influenced by the Germans. Col. Jun Peron idealized Mussolini. Argentina thus while theoretically neutrl was pro-Axis for much of the War. After Italy withdrew from the War (1943), the Allies pressured Argentina to declare war on Germany (1944). This was only a token step. Argentina remained pro-German throught the War, even after details of NAZI attrocities emerged. A German U-boat appear at Mar del Plata instead of surrendering to the Allies (May 1945). After the War, Argentina became a haven for NAZI war criminals, including the infamous Dr. Mengele. Eva Peron is known to have accepted substantial payments in exchange for offering a refuge for NAZI war criminals and looted property. American diplomat Hiram Bingham, who had managed to save some Jewish refugees in Vichy, turned up evidence of Argentines sheltering NAZI war criminals. When the State Department refused to persue his leads, he resigned in protest (1946). German scientists set up jet aircraft production in Argentina.
Argentina seem posed to make the transition to a developed economy, but sucumed to the alures of populalist leader, Col. Juan Peron. His regimes was widely supported by a coalition of workers, catholics, nationalists, and the Army, but chaotic policies severly damaged the economy which has never fully recovered. The declining economy eroded his popularity and he was over thrown by the Argentine Army (1958).
Civilian governments failed to arrest the economic decline or deal with a communist insurgency and the Army seized power (1966). The Army conducted a brutal campaign which did destroy the communist insurgency, but in the process many mostly young people disappeared, meaning were tirtured and killed by the military.
Most wars breakout over a long-time line. The Falklands War without warning burst on the world scene in 1982 with virtually no warning. Few Europeans or Anericans, even Few Brits were aware of the Falklands. The Argentines were very aware of the iskands which they called the Malvinas. Argentina had long claimed the Falkands and it was a claim widely supported in Argentina. , but there was no indication that they would go to war over the islands. Their claim was geograohic. The Falkands were located off the coast of Argentina. The British clinm was largely demographic. The Falkland islanders were of British origins. The flagging Argentine economy had made the military Junta very unpopuklar. The Junta in an effort to regain popularity, the Junta invaded the Islands (1982). British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher ordered the military to retake the Islands. It was the most telegraphed military invasion in history. Mrs. Thtcher hoped for a diplomatic resolution. The ability of the British military after years of budget cuts to retake the islands waa very much in question. The United States promoted a diplmatic sollution. President Regan from the beginning set a very clear position. The United States was neutral on the soveriginity issue, but opposed the Argentine military action which esentially ment a tilt toward Britain. The cabinet was, however, less supportive of Britain, especially Secretary of State Hague. Secretary of State tried to convince the Junta to adopt a comprise sollution which would mean withdrawing in exchange for a diplomatic sollution that would eventually turn over the Islands to Argentina. Mrs. Thatcher was amenable to this, some say because she was astute enough to gamble that the Junta in possession of the Ilands and riduing aave cof popularity would never accept it. And jndeed the Junta in possession of the Islands refused all offers of compromise. The United States as a result, remainrd ostensibly neutral, but provided vital logistical support to the badly streached Royal Navy. Large segments of the British press at the time loved to make fun of President Reagan and were criticalm of Mrs. Thtcher's conservative policies. Her reelection prospects were dim. It was Reagan's support, howver, that that made the British invasion possible. The British in a dramatic naval, air, and ground operation invaded the Islands. The Argentine Junta crammed a large conscript fiorce on the Islands, concentrated around Port Stanley. They wee supoorted by a modern air force. The British had a substantial naval force, but very limited air cover, only a small carrier. If the Junta had waited a little longer, ghis lat carrier would have been decommissioned. The very professional British military suceeded. The Royal Marines overwealmed a much larger Argentine force. The result was a stinging endorsement of the international rule of law. The absence of thecrukle of law to this day aflicts the Argentina, a country with enormous potential. There were a range if unexpected outcomes from the War. Mrs. Thatcher political fortunes reversed and she woild becone dominant in British politics for more than a decade and as a result of her free market policies, the British economy revived. In Argentina the Junta fell and democracy was restablished. And free market reforms there brought two decades of Argentine economic prosperity.
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