Figure 1.--This photo shows a group of Armenian children, probably in front of a school. It was located in Maraasc, a village in Cilicia, today part of Turkey. The photo was taken in the late-19th century. With the children there are two Franciscan friars and an Armenian man, probably a teacher. Most of the Armenians belong to the Orthodox Church, but there is also a group of Catholics. The photo gives us a view of Armenian people in Turkey before the genocide. Both boys and girls wear tunics. This bsic gament seems to date from the Middle Age. A few boys also wear a jacket. All the boys wear a fez, but the girls have no headwear. Most of the children are barefoot. Put your cursor on the image to see the rest of the group.

Finally the Ottomans after finally taking Constantinople (1453) turned eastward an added Armenia to their growing empire. The Islamic Ottomans were relatively tolerant to religious diversity, at least in comparison to contemporary Christian practices. The Ottomans created the Armenians as a millet, meaning a civil-religious minority governed by the Armenian Church within the overall authority of Empire. Although the Ottoman were an advanced civilization in the 15th century. The Ottomans expanded into the Balkans and for a time threatened Western Europe. Armenians and Turks for several centuries lived in relative harmony. Armenians became known as the "loyal millet". Although Armenians because they were Christians were not equal and, as a result, were subject to certain restrictions. They were generally acceptd as loyal subjects of the Empire. There was very little ethnic violence. In part because of Islam, the Ottomans never experienced the modernizing movements (Renaissance, Enligtenment, Reformation, or Industrial Revolution) which transformed European civilization. As a result, by the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire had become a backwater of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire declined, Imperial rule became increasingly oppresive. After the French Revolution, Western ideals of liberal constitutional government, individual rights, national self determination, began to influence the Armenians and other national groups within the Ottoman Empire. These groups became increasingly disturbed by autocratic, backward Ottiman rule. Most Christian minorities within the Ottoman Empire were located in the Balkans. Befinning with the Greeks, these groups assisted by Russia and European powers gradually achieved independence. The Armenians by the 1880s were increasingly isolated as the only important Christian minority left in the Empire. The only other Christian group of importnce were the Greek communities in western Anatolia. Growing Armenian nationalism increasingly separated thm from Turks about future political strucures. Armenians demanded increasing autonomy, even independence. Some Turks began to envision a new Pan-Turkic empire extending from Turkey into central Asia where there were also Turkish popultion. Separating The Turks in Anatolia from the Turks in Central Asia were the Armenians in eastern Anatolia and the Caususes. Turkish nationalist began to see the increasingly nationlistic Christian Armenians as an impediment to their pan-Turkish empire.

Conquest of Armenia

Finally the Ottomans after finally taking Constantinople (1453) turned eastward an added Armenia to their growing empire.

Religious Toleration: Relgious Millet

The Islamic Ottomans were relatively tolerant to religious diversity, at least in comparison to contemporary Christian practices. The Ottomans created the Armenians as a millet, meaning a civil-religious minority governed by the Armenian Church within the overall authority of Empire.

Ottoman Power

The Ottoman were developed as a major power (14th century_. This allowed them to comquer the Christain Balkans ann then the Arab Lands (16th century). The Ottomons, however never made the laeap to modernity. There wwas no Renaisance in the Ottoman Empire. And as science developmed in the West as well as capitalism and the ibdustial revolution, the Ottomans lagged behind. They were rich and powerful for several centurues, but increasingly had to buy technology and modern weaponry in the West. This was first apparent in nacal warfare as demonstrated as Diu (1509) and Lepanto (1571). The Portuguese establishment of maritime routesto the East desrtoyed on of the major undepinnings of the Ottoman economy. The shift of trade routes from the overland to maritime routes weakend the Empire's economic foundation and invigorated the economies of western Europe. (16th century). The Ottomans still fielded powrful land armies and smashed Hungary and even threatened Vienna for a time (1529 anbd 1683). Gradually they experienced defeats. First at the hands of the expanding Tsarist Empire in the Ukraine, Crimea, and Caucauses. By the 19th centuy the Ottomans became known as the 'Sick Man of Europe'. Abd at the same time they had to contend with rising nationlist sentiment by the non-Turkic people which constituted a majority of the population.

Ottoman-Armenian Relations

Armenians and Turks for several centuries lived in relative harmony. Armenians became known as the "loyal millet". Although Armenians because they were Christians were not equal and, as a result, were subject to certain restrictions. They were generally acceptd as loyal subjects of the Empire. There was very little ethnic violence.

Rise of Nationalism

In part because of Islam, the Ottomans never experienced the modernizing movements (Renaissance, Enligtenment, Reformation, or Industrial Revolution) which transformed European civilization. As a result, by the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire had become a backwater of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire declined, Imperial rule became increasingly oppresive. After the French Revolution, Western ideals of liberal constitutional government, individual rights, national self determination, began to influence the Christian national groups within the Empire, main the Balkan groups (Bulgarian, Greek, Hungarian, Romanian, and Serb) as well as the Armenins. These groups became increasingly disturbed by autocratic, backward Ottoman rule.

Turkish National Visions

Most Christian populations within the Ottoman Empire were located in the Balkans. And in the Balkans, espite centuries of Ottoman rulke, they were a majority. Beginning with the Greeks, these groups assisted by Russia and European powers gradually achieved independence. The Armenians by the 1880s were increasingly isolated as the only important Christian minority left in the Empire. This left them in a very dngerous position. They were a minority in the Tyrkic areas of the Empire. anbd the Turks were also influebced by rising nationism. Many saw a natural afinity with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. And between them and Central Asia was the substantial Armenian Christin popultion of eastern Turkey nd th Caucauses, now diminated by Tsarist Russia. The only other Christian group of importnce were the Greek communities in western Anatolia. Growing Armenian nationalism increasingly separated thm from Turks about future political strucures. Armenians demanded increasing autonomy, even independence. Some Turks began to envision a new Pan-Turkic empire extending from Turkey into central Asia where there were also Turkish popultion. This vision increased as the Christibs in the Balkans stedily expelled the Turks. Turkish nationalist began to see the increasingly nationlistic Christian Armeians as an impediment to their pan-Turkish empire.

Hamidian Massacres (1894-97)

The Ottoman assault on the Armenian people began with the Hamidian Massacres, sometimes called the Great Massacres (1894-97). The massacres were ordered by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II who initiated efforts to reinforce the territorial integrity of the Empire which had suffered major territirial losses to new Chritian states in the west and the Chrustian Tsarist Empire in the East The Sultan began to assert a new Pan-Islamism as the state ideology. [Akçam, p. 44.] Ottoman soldiers and police began killing Armenians (1894). The killing contunued at a high level (1895-96). The killing took place in mny remote areas of the Empire. Only when horific reports of the killing began reaching Western media and the Great Powers began to demand a stop to the killing did the Ottoman authorities begin to relent. There also had been reports of attacks on Christians in the Ottoman cintrolled Levant, but these were better reported and the Great Powers had reacted more forecefully. The Ottoman killing actions at first targetted the Armeniansbin estern Anatolia. But as the killing went on, the Ottoman authorties began killing Christians indiscriminate. One of the worst such actions was at Diyarbekir Vilayet where some 25,000 Assyrians were butchered byOttoman soldiers. [Angold and O’Mahony, p. 512.] There is no precise record of the killing. Estimates range from 80,000 to 300,000 people. There is a fairly accurate accounting made by European missionaries of the orphans created by the killing--50,000 children. ["Fifty thousand ..."] The Ottomans had a long history of severely suppresing revolts. But this was different, there was no revolt in progress. This was one of the everest repressive actions in Ottoman history until the World War I Armenian Genocide. The Ottoman soldiers killed m]n, women, and children with no mercy as to age or gender. [Cleveland, p. 119.] It is unclear to us why there was not a massive flight of Armenians out of the Empire as a result of such brutality.

Sources

Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility (Metropolitan Books: New York, 2006).

Angold, Michael and Anthony O’Mahony, ed. Cambridge History of Christianity, 5. Eastern Christianity (Cambridge University Press, 2006).

Cleveland, William L. "A History of the Modern Middle East (2nd ed.). (Westview: Boulder, Colorado, 2000).

"Fifty Thousand Orphans made So by the Turkish Massacres of Armenians", The New York Times (December 18, 1896).

Created: 7:11 PM 1/26/2009
Last updated: 2:48 AM 9/17/2015