Chinese Civil War: Renewed Fighting--The Final Phase (1945-49)


Figure 1.--This 12-year-old boy soldier of the 22nd Division of the Chinese 6th Army guards supplies near Shanghai after World War II and the renewed fighting in the north as part of the final phase iof the Civil War. The press caption read, "12-year-old a veteran soldier: They had to start fighting at abn early age in China. This 12-tear-old Chinese soldier was ione if the members of the 22nd Divisionof the Chinese Sixth Army was were carried by the U.S. Navyfrom Shanghai, China to Chingangtac, China, recently. The lift was made with LSTs (Landing Ship Tanks, which were used in amphhibious landings in nealy every campaign." The ophotograph was dated January 30, 1946.

The KMT and the CPC formed a Second United Front to resist the Japanese invasion (1937). In fact the great bulk of the resistance to the Japanese came from the KMT forces. And the Communists continued the Civil War at a low level. The war with Japan greatly weaknened the Nationalists. Their best divisions were destroyed in the early operations to defend Shanghai and other cities. Finally they had to retreat into the hinterland where the Japanese had difficulty brining their superior forces to bear on the KMT forces. And KMT operations to secure food, resources, and men caused terrible suffering in the countryside, undermined their relationship with the pesantry, tenous at best even before the War. The Communists who generally avoided combat with the Japanese in contrast were more judicious in their contacts with the peasantry. The Soviets quickly smashed the Japanese army in Manchuria The Soviets quickly destroyed the Japanese Kwantung Army which had been depleted to support the Pacific War and preparing for the expected invasion of the Home Islands. This left the Soviets in controlm of Manchuria. They turned massive quantities of arms over to the CPC. Some 0.7 million Japanese surrendered to the Soviets. General MacArthure after the Japanese surrender (August 15) ordered the Japanese in China to surrender to KMT not CPC forces. Chiang realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CPC takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure. He negiotiated an arrangement with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of the KMT Army, including many of his best-trained men and modern material into Manchuria. The Soviet Red Army blocked the KMT troops. The United States airlifted KMT units to occupy the main cities of Manchuria and northern China. Much of the countryside, however, was dominated by the CPC. The KMT launced an offensive to strengthen their positionn in the north (November 15). The Soviets spent the extra time given them in Manchuria to dismantling the extensive Japanese Manchurian industrial base and transporting it back to the Soviet Union. Some estimates value the industrial pilage at up to $2 billion dollars. [Lilley] United States Marines were used to hold Beiping and Tianjin against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Nationalist forces in north and northeast China. The CPC forces for the first time were now well armed. The United States tried to mediate the war, but this was a pipe dream evolving from a limited knowledge of China. General of the Army George Catlett Marshall began efforts to mediate a solution to the Chinese civil war. General of the Army George Catlett Marshall (November 1945). The KMT and CPC forces renewed the civil war in earnest (1946). American policymakers and strategists debated the extent to which the United States should intervene to try to prevent a Communist victory in the Chinese civil war. Marshall who was appointed Secretary of State opposed direct American military intervention, but supported economic assistance. Much of the economic assitance, however, was wasted because of the corruption of KMT officials. The United States thus aided the KMT with massive economic loans and logistical support, but no direct military combat support. Battles raged across China, but primarily in the north where the Comminist were strongest. The war was not just for territory, but for the allegiance of the population. Here the KNT was at a disadvantage because of the plocies theu pursued during the war with Japan. The CPC forces had not taken on the Japanese to the same extent as the KMT and had been more judicuious in their handling of civilians, especially the peasantry. The CPC forces used Manchuria as a secure base of supply and manpower. KMT forces rushed north to take over after the Soviet withdrawl sized the cities, but did not control the countryside. Communist field commanders in the north after several operational set-backs in attempting to take the major cities finally defeated KMT forces in a series of conventional engagements. These were some of the strongest elements of the KMT Army. The CPC succeded in seizing Manchuria. Mao then began to focus on the war south of the Great Wall. After the Huai-hai Campaign, it looked like the CPC forces were going to pause along the northern bank of the Yangtze River. Instead the CPC forces crossed the river. And with many if the strongest KMT units destoyed in the northern fighing, the CPC armies swept south. KMT resistance collapsed. Chiang and his supporters retreated to Taiwan. Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) (October 1, 1949). After 4 years, major military action finally ended (1950). The PRC was in complete control of the mainland as well as Hainan Island. The KMT now controlled only Taiwan, Penghu, Quemoy, Matsu and a few outlying islands.

Japanese Invasion (1937-45)

The KMT and the CPC formed a Second United Front to resist the Japanese invasion (1937). In fact the great bulk of the resistance to the Japanese came from the KMT forces. And the Communists continued the Civil War, albeit at alesser level. The war with Japan greatly weaknened the Nationalists. Their best divisions were destroyed in the early operations to defend Shanghai and other cities. Finally they had to retreat into the hinterland where the Japanese had difficulty brining their superior forces to bear on the KMT forces. And KMT operations to secure food, resources, and men caused terrible suffering in the countryside, undermined their relationship with the pesantry, tenous at best even before the War. The Communists who generally avoided combat with the Japanese in contrast were more judicious in their contacts with the peasantry.

Soviet Invasion of Manchuria (August 1945)

The Soviets quickly smashed the Japanese army in Manchuria The Soviets quickly destroyed the Japanese Kwantung Army which had been depleted to support the Pacific War and preparing for the expected invasion of the Home Islands. This left the Soviets in controlm of Manchuria. They turned massive quantities of arms over to the CPC. Some 0.7 million Japanese surrendered to the Soviets. General MacArthure after the Japanese surrender (August 15) ordered the Japanese in China to surrender to KMT not CPC forces.

Northern China (1945-46)

Chiang realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CPC takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure. He negiotiated an arrangement with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of the KMT Army, including many of his best-trained men and modern material into Manchuria. The Soviet Red Army blocked the KMT troops. The United States airlifted KMT units to occupy the main cities of Manchuria and northern China. Much of the countryside, however, was dominated by the CPC. The KMT launced an offensive to strengthen their positionn in the north (November 15, 1945). The Soviets spent the extra time given them in Manchuria to dismantling the extensive Japanese Manchurian industrial base and transporting it back to the Soviet Union. Some estimates value the industrial pilage at up to $2 billion dollars. [Lilley] United States Marines were used to hold Beiping and Tianjin against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Nationalist forces in north and northeast China. The CPC forces for the first time were now well armed. Chaing launched what he hoped would be the war winnning offensive (June 1946). Nearly 2 million Nationalist soldiers attacked the Communist bases in north and central China. The KMT also began a major campaign in Manchuria (July). The KMT unilaterally announced that the National Assembly would convene (July 4) The dae was set at November 12. The CPC and the Democratic League announced a boycott calling it illegal. Mao called for war calling it self-defense. He renamed the CPC milirary forces the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The KMT began asasinating sympathetivs leftists and even liberals. Omeof those killed was the poet Wen Yiduo. Gen Marshall tried to convince Chiang that his polcies were leading to economic collapse that would lead to a Communist victory. Ching ordered 150,000 well-disclinedtroops into Jiangsu province (Summer). They took 29 counties from the Communists, at least te urban areas. They also captured 49 counties in the Hebei-Shandong-Henan border region. The KMT commanders moved to eliminate CC influence. Those who had supported the CPCwere forced to pay ransoms. Those who could or would not were jaimed or executed. Leftists complained about U.S. ssistance. Protest demonstrations in the Nationlidst controlled cities and towns often led to riots. The Communists occasionally attacked U.S. militry forces working with the KMT. The Cmmunists ambused 40 U.S. marines in Anping (July 1946(. The CPC forces for the most part avoided battles with the KMT forces. Their tactic was to mintain their forces in tact and use guerrilla tactics when they had local advantage. Mao issued his “Smash Chaing Kai-sheks offensive by a War of Self-Defense” orders. (July 20).

U.S. Involvement

The United States tried to mediate the war, but this was a pipe dream evolving from a limited knowledge of China. General of the Army George Catlett Marshall began efforts to mediate a solution to the Chinese civil war. General of the Army George Marshall (November 1945). American policy makers and strategists debated the extent to which the United States should intervene to try to prevent a Communist victory in the Chinese civil war. Marshall who was appointed Secretary of State opposed direct American military intervention, but supported economic assistance. Much of the economic assitance, however, was wasted because of the corruption of KMT officials. The U.S. Congress passed the China Aid Act to aide Chiang and the KMT (April 1948). The United States aided the KMT with massive economic loans and logistical support, but no direct military combat support.

Renewed Civil War (1946)

Gen, Marshall seeing the futility of continued negtiation left China (January 1947). The KMT and CPC forces renewed the civil war in earnest. As the soviets began withdrawinbg from Manchuria fighting broke out between KMT and CCP (March 1947). The KMT took Yan'an (Yenan), the CPC headquarter for most of World War II. The apparent KMT successes were, however, hollow, the CPC had tactically withdrawn its forces from the the cities. They confront KMT authoritiesin the cities by instigating protests amongst students and sympthetic intellectuals. The KMT responded by violently supressing the protests. [Leung, p. 96.] The KMT was at the time distracted by factional infighting and opposition to Chiang Kai-shek's autoritative control. THE CPC formes began a limited counter attack (July 1947). The objectives were to make some gains in central China, but to rimarily strengthening the hold on North China and recover Northeast China. As part of this effort, the KMT began to exerience massive desertions. One sources estimates some 2 million men deserted from the KMT armies (by spring 1948). Othersiurces report CPC sucesses in winning ver public opinion with the inreasing unpopularity of KMT rule. Mao announced a land reform(Octber 1947). The CC began isolating KMT garrisons in Manchuria and retaking lost territories. At tis point, Mao launched his major offesive (September 1948). Battles raged across China, but primarily in the north where the Communists were strongest. The war was not just for territory, but for the allegiance of the population. Here the KMT was at a disadvantage because of the policies they pursued during the war with Japan. The CPC forces had not taken on the Japanese to the same extent as the KMT and had been more judicuious in their handling of civilians, especially the peasantry.

Propaganda

Mao worked closely with the more educated and politically astute Chou En-Lai. Together they manipulated the foreign press and western intelectuals. They had considerable success in convincing many tht they were not really Communists, but proponents of rural democracy trying to improve the lot of peasants and women. Chiang nd the Natiinalists were ddepicted a venal and corrupt. Edgar Parks Snow (1905–72) was the most noted American journalist to fall into this myth. He was known for his books and articles on the Chinese Communist revolution. He was the first Western journalist to give a full account of the history of the Chinese Communist Party following the Long March, and was the first to interview many of its leaders, including Mao Zedong and Chou En-Lai. His work was often openly flattering toward Mao and the Communists which is why he was given access to the leadeship. [Snow] This was line of thought was strengthened by the subsequent experence of American military advisers working with Chiang and the Nationalists. They correctly reported the military inadequacy and coruption of the Nationalists, but often did not understand the political situation, especially the civil war with the Communists. Anerican militry asvisers were focused almost exclusively on the war with Japan. Nor did they fully understand the dusasterous food situation. Few gave the Nationalists credit for their primary achiement, tieing down the bulk of the Japanese Army during the Pacific War.

Fighting in the North (1948-49)

The CPC forces used Manchuria as a secure base of supply and manpower. KMT forces had rushed north to take over after the Soviet withdrawl sized the cities, but did not control the countryside. Communist field commanders in the north after several operational set-backs in attempting to take the major cities finally defeated KMT forces in a series of conventional engagements. The CPC forces using the Japanese weapons turned over to them by the Soviets were able to take on the KMT forces. And they captured U.S. arms that form defeated KMT forces. The Communists began winning Chinese cities north of the Great Wall. The Communists launch the Huai-Hai campain (November 1948). Xuzhou (Pengcheng) in Jiangsua Prvince was a major transportation hub in northern China. Here the Nationalists and Japanese and Nationalits had earlier fought a major battle. Nationalists and Communists fought a desperate battle as part of the Huaihai Campaign. It proved the largest battle of the Civil War which essentially decided the outcome of the Civil War. Some 0.5 million troops were engaged on each side (November 1948–January 1949). The Communists prevailed. The CPC had defeated the strongest elements of the KMT Army. Now with Manchuria. firmly in his hands, Mao then began to focus on the war south of the Great Wall. Lin Biao’s 0.8 million strng army captured Tianjin (January 1949). Then Beijing fell thout a fight. KMT General Fu Zuoyi after his plans were stolen by a Communist spy, surrendered with 200,000 troops. They then joined the PLA. In four months of heavy fighting, the KMT had lost 1.5 million troops. Mao triumphantly entered Beijing with the PLA (March 25, 1949). He formed a provisional government for north China.

Soviet Policy

Stalin attempted to restrain Mao on several occasions while he gauged American responses to developments in China. After the Huai-hai Campaign, it looked like the CPC forces were going to pause along the northern bank of the Yangtze River. Only when it became obvious that American and British support for Chisng was limited did Stalin give Mao the go-ahead to cross the Yangtze.

Communists Sweep South (April 1949)

KMT Warlord and military commander Li Zongren hoped to hold southern China by making a stand at the Yangzi River. The Yangtze is the major river floing through central China, seprasting the north and south. Li tried to negotiate with Mao. Mao had no intention of negotiating having defeated the principal KMT field armies. He insisted on his eight-point surrender program. Li Zongren refused the ultimatum. The British ordered the Amethyst frigate up the Yangzi to Nanjing to evcuate their embassy. PLA forces fired on it killing 17 sailors (April 7). Other British ships aempted to reach Nanking, but were unable to do so., Mao ordred the PLA to cross the Yangzi (April 21). With many if the strongest KMT units destoyed in the northern fighing, the PLA swept south. KMT resistance collapsed. The PLA quickly took Nationalist-controlled cities and with each victory they gaining increasing popular support. The PLA enter Nanking (April 23). The LA took Hangzhou, Shanghai, Nanchang, and Wuhan with little fighting (May). Shanghai on the Yangziwas was China's principal port and the business and commercial center of China and the major prize in the Civil War. Yan Xishan in Shanxi tried to hold on to his power by using thousands of Japanese troops that had not been repstristed. The PLA entered Taiyuan (April). He set fire to the prison holding Communist prisoners and then committed suicide. Peng Dehuai led a PLA Army west and took Xi’an defended by a Muslim general from Gansu. He then entered Lanzhou (August) before moving into Xinjiang. Lin Biao’s forces captured Changsha (August) as the Communists took control of Hunan, Hubei, and Fujian. As the PLA swept south, CPC operatives rounded up and summrily excuted those they saw as enemies. Guangzhou fell to the Communits (October 13) The PLA occupied Guizhou and Sichuan (November). The remiming KMT forces defended Xiamen as more Nationalists fled to Taiwan. Xiamen fell (December 9). KMT forces held out for a time in southwest China.

KMT Refuge: Formosa/Taiwan (July 1949)

Chiang and his supporters who could find trasort retreated to Taiwan. Jiang sey up his military headquarters on Taiwan as the miitary disater nfolded n the Mainland (July 1949). He then moved the KMT Government from Chongqing to Chengdu and finally to Taiwan (December 8). About 2 million KMT supporters were able to take refuge on Taiwan. Li Zongren fled to British-controlled Hong Kong and then to exile in the United States. The PLA attempted to take Taiwan. They suffered 9,000 casualties in a preliminary effort to take Jinmen Island (Quemoy) off the coast of Fujian,

Communist Victory: Founding the People's Republic (October 1949)

Mao in a massive ceremony in the square of the Gate of Heavenly Peace proclaimed the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) (October 1, 1949). The Soviet Union recognized the PRC (October 2). The Soviet Eastern European sattelites quickly followed suit as did a few non-Communist countries. Mao took a train to Moscow to meet with Stalin (December). After 4 years, major military action finally ended (1950). The PRC was in complete control of the mainland as well as Hainan Island. The KMT now controlled only Taiwan, Penghu, Quemoy, Matsu and a few outlying islands.

Sources

Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. Ed. Historical Dictionary of Revolutionary China, 1839–1976 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992).

Lilly, James with Jeffrery Lilly. China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia (Public Affairs, 2004), 417p.

Snow, Edgar. Red Star Over China (1937),








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