*** British Raj British role








The British Raj: Independence Movement (1920s-40s)


Figure 1.-- The Simon Commission set up the pramters for discussing further constitutional reforms (May 1930). Three Round Table Conferences were hosted in London by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms (193o-32). They were conducted in London with an Indian delegation led by Ghandi. Here we see Gandhi on the way to London. The press caption read, "One of the most pleasant moments for Mahatma Gandhi, the Indian leader, aboard the 'S.S. Rajputna' at sea while nearing him from India to London at attend the round table conferenc, is shown above. The genial Gandhi enjoyed his sea voyage very much, romping with the children, caressing babies and joking with parents. . He wore aoin cloth during the entire voyage. The picture offers an unusual study of Gandhi, smiling broadly, as he played with a child aboard a ship." The Indians demanded swaraj (self-rule). And in Britain, many were comong to the conclusion that India should move toward dominion status. Others thought that this might be desirable, but the constitutional shift should be incremental. Significant differences between the Indian and British delegtions proved impossible to bridge.

"Shoot Gabdhi! And if that does not suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of Congress, and if that does not suffice shoot two hundred or so until order is established."

-- German Chancellor Adolf Hitler meeting with British Prime-Minister Lord Halifax (former British Governor-General of India), 1937

The Indian people under British rule during the 19th century had no say in government even at a local level. This was not a huge change for Indians because before the arrival of The British, the subcontinent was ruled by potentates over which the population had little or no influence. Educated middle class nationals at the behest of British civil servant A.O. Hume and fellow members of the Theosophical Society movement founded the Indian National Congress (INC) (1885). Their objectives were at first modest, but wanted Indians to have a voice as to how they were governed. Secretary of State for India John Morley and Lord Minto Viceroy of India introduced government reforms to respond to growing Indian political demands (1909). A governor was appointed for each province of India and Indian nationals were allowed to sit on the provincil councils which advised the new governors. The Indian struggle for independence began in earest after World War I (1914-18). Mahatma Gahandi inspired the Indian people in an unorthodox independence movement led by the Congress Party. The INC was not satisfied with the Moley-Minto Reforms and pressed for more Indian participation in governmnt. The British Parliament responding to Indian demands and recognizing the importance of India in Word War I passed the Government of India Act to permit increased Indian particpaton in the governing of the colony (1919). The Act established for the first time a national parliament with two houses. About 5 million Indians were given the right to vote, a small percentage of the total population but a huge number in comparison to any earlier period of Indian history. And Indians were appointedcto ministerial positions for the first time. Provincial governments could now include Indian nationals, including ministers of education, health, and public works Amd a commitment was made to form a commission in 1929, to determine if India was ready for expanded governmental reforms. The British continued to control all central government and within the provincial governments, the British retained control of the critical posts of tax and security (police and military). Congress as it developed included both Muslim and Hindu leaders. Largely through Ghandi's influence it was a non-violent movement. The independence movement led by Mahatma Ghandi and the Congress Party gained considerable strength during the 1920s and 30s. The Simon Commission set up the pramters for discussing furhr constitutional reforms (May 1930). Three Round Table Conferences were hosted in London by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms (1930-32). They were conducted in London with an Indian delegation led by Ghandi. The Indians demanded swaraj (self-rule). And in Britain, many were coming to the conclusion that India should move toward dominion status. Others thought that this might be desirable, but the constitutional shift should be incremental. Significant differences between the Indian and British delegtions proved impossible to bridge. What emerged in India as World war II loomed was a political situation short of home rule, but included substantial Indian participation and a free press. Nehru and other Congress leaders greatly respected Gandhi, including Muslim leader Muhammed Jinnah. Most including Nehru and Jinnah considered Gandhi him a kind of beloved dreamer and not a pracical man whose bission they could follow to actually govern India. An Indian with whom we have been discussing Gandhi writes, "Gandhi was not an enemy of capitalism.But after he discovered India, when returned from South Africa he had a vision of self-reliant villages, with a reinvigorated agriculture and craft production. He believed that modern economics would lead to pauperization. And he also distrusted technology because it dehumanized man. At that time, we were not ready to take off industrial revolution as it would cause unemployment to illiterate indians. Gandhi distrusted technology but not businessman." [Ch] The British-ducated Nehru and much of Congress had a more Socialist vision for India which is not surprising because this a direction tht Britain itself was headed. And may were impressed with the apparent rapid development of the Soviet Union as a result of state planning.

Indian National Congress (INC)

The Indian people under British rule during the 19th century had no say in government even at a local level. In discussions with indians, they understanably cricise the British. What I do not see in Indian assessments is a recognition that this was unusual in India. This was not a huge change for Indians because before the arrival of The British, the subcontinent was ruled by potentates over which the population had little or no influence. The idea that ordinary people should have an influence in giverbnent was an idea that Britain brought to India. Educated middle class nationals at the behest of British civil servant A.O. Hume and fellow members of the Theosophical Society movement founded the Indian National Congress (INC) (1885). The INC objectives were at first modest, but wanted Indians to have a voice as to how they were governed.

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

Secretary of State for India John Morley and Lord Minto Viceroy of India introduced government reforms to respond to growing Indian political demands (1909). A governor was appointed for each province of India and Indian nationals were allowed to sit on the provincil councils which advised the new governors.

World War I (1914-18)

World War I was largely limited to Europe, but the British Empire, both dominions and colonies, each played a role. India was an important source of both men and resources for Britain. At the time British India included not only modern India, but Pakistan, Bangaldesh and Sri Lanka as well. Indian units were also imployed in the fighting. As part of the BEF rushed to northeast France and Belgium were 30,000 Indian troops. They helped slow the German advance and prevented the Germans from seizing the Channel Ports. Here the Lahore Division of the Indian Corps played an important role. Khudadad Khan at the First Battle of Ypres was the first Indian to win a Victoria Cross. German possession of the Channel Ports would have greatly complicated Allied supply problems on the Western Front. A total of 0.14 Indians were deployed to the Western Front. About two-thirds were committed to the front-line Indian Corps, and one-third to auxiliary battalions. The Indian Corps served in the front line trenches for about a year. They were then withdrawn, decimated by sickness and casualties. Indians accustomed to a tropical climate were especially affected by trench warfare. Indian units totaling about 0.7 million men were subsequently deployed primarily in the Middle East. They saw action against the Ottomans in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indians were also committed in the costly Gallipoli peninsula as well as actions in East and West Africa as well as China. There was no conscription, but 1.5 million Indians volunteered to serve with British forces. This was a major contribution to the Allied effort. Had the Indian forces not been available, Britain would have had to divert men from the critical Western front. Nearly 48,000 Indians were killed. About 100,000 Gurkhas from Nepal fought in the War.

Government of India Act (1919)

The British Parliament passed a series of laws entitled the Government of India Act. The 1919 Act marked a turning point. For the first time Parliament addressed the issue of Indian particiption in government. Parliament allowed this with the Dominions, but never before with a non-British population. The Indian struggle for independence began in earest after World War I (1914-18). India had played a role in the British victory. Mahatma Gaandhi inspired the Indian people in an unorthodox independence movement led by the Congress Party (INC). The INC was not satisfied with the Moley-Minto Reforms and pressed for more Indian participation in government. The British Parliament responding to Indian demands and recognizing the importance of India in World War I passed the Government of India Act to permit increased Indian particpaton in the governing of the colony (1919). And not just increased appointmnts--for the first time Indians got to vote. The Act established for the first time a national parliament with two houses. About 5 million Indians were given the right to vote, a small percentage of the total population but a huge number in comparison to any earlier period of Indian history. This was the first election ever held in India. Mos Indians today are critical of British cvolonioal rule. Few are aware that democracy and elctions are a Briutish political innovation and somrtyhing tht never befiore iccurred in India. In addition, Indians were appointed to ministerial positions for the first time. Provincial governments could now include Indian nationals, including ministers of education, health, and public works Amd a commitment was made to form a commission in 1929, to determine if India was ready for expanded governmental reforms. The British continued to control all central government and within the provincial governments, the British retained control of the critical posts of tax and security (police and military). Congress as it developed included both Muslim and Hindu leaders. Largely through Ghandi's influence it was a non-violent movement.

Increased Activism (1920s)

The independence movement led by Mahatma Ghandi and the Congress Party gained considerable strength during the 1920s.

Round Rable Conference (1930-32)

The Simon Commission set up the pramters for discussing furhr constitutional reforms (May 1930). Three Round Table Conferences were hosted in London by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms (1930-32). They were conducted in London with an Indian delegation led by Ghandi. The Indians demanded swaraj (self-rule). And in Britain, many were coming to the conclusion that India should move toward dominion status. Others thought that this might be desirable, but the constitutional shift should be incremental. Significant differences between the Indian and British delegtions proved impossible to bridge.

Political Situation (1930s)

What emerged in India as World War II loomed was a political situation of partial home rule. There was substantial Indian participation and a free press. The British allowed demnocratic elections which the Congress Party won with substantial majorities.

Independence Leaders

Nehru and other Congress leaders greatly respected Gandhi, including Muslim leader Muhammed Jinnah. Most including Nehru and Jinnah considered Gandhi him a kind of beloved dreamer and not a pracical man whose bission they could follow to actually govern India. An Indian with whom we have been discussing Gandhi writes, "Gandhi was not an enemy of capitalism.But after he discovered India, when returned from South Africa he had a vision of self-reliant villages, with a reinvigorated agriculture and craft production. He believed that modern economics would lead to pauperization. And he also distrusted technology because it dehumanized man. At that time, we were not ready to take off industrial revolution as it would cause unemployment to illiterate indians. Gandhi distrusted technology but not businessman." [Ch] The British-ducated Nehru and much of Congress had a more Socialist vision for India which is not surprising because this a direction tht Britain itself was headed. And may were impressed with the apparent rapid development of the Soviet Union as a result of state planning.

English Common Law

India was not the only independence movement active in the world at the time. And there were masny more as the NAZIS, Italians and, Japaneses, and Soviets launched their reign of terror with World War II. The Soviets murdered 5 million Ukranians before the War by starving them to death. And the Ukranians were just one of the many ethnic nationalities Stalin was supressing with great brutalithy. Solzhenitsyn chroicles this in detail. 【Solzhenitsyn】 The Italians were hard at work in Libya and Ethiopia, even using chemical werapons. The Japanese even raised brutality to a new level of barbarism in the Rape of Nanking and counless other palces througout China. Ghandi's non-violent movement was effective, but only because he was confronting the British and not imperialists uncontrained by English Commonn Law. The Belgians carried imperialism to extrodinary levels in the Congo. Hitler would put his methedology to work throughout Europe. After the War, the French demonstrated their commitment to violence in Algeria. And if was not just the British, another country founded on English law, was offering independence to its only major colony--the Philippines and without facing a strong indepndence movement. (America would be the only country welcomed back withopen arms by the Asians who suffered under Japanese rule.) Dr. Martin Luther King, used Ghandi's tactics of non-violence in his Civil Rights Campaign in America. And King also proved successful. The reason that both Ghandi and King suceeded and others using violence failed was English Law. This not only placed constraints on the use of force, but created customs of law, decency, and fair play along with an acceptance of the right of dissent. All of this streched back to the Magna Carta and beyond. The right of dissent was somewhat more recent, John Hampden's protest again King Charles I personal rule, especially the imposition of Ship Money (1630s). Ghandi's and King's genius was to base their non-violent movement on the basic beliefs that even the British and Americans who opposed them held dear.

Sources

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander. Gulag Archepeligo







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Created: 1:08 PM 12/7/2015
Last updated: 8:22 PM 3/28/2023