Manifest Destiny: Internal Improvements

Figure 1.--America's achievement of Manifest Destiny is often depicted as primarily the result of aggressive war--the Mexican War (1846-48). The War was only incidental. The actual reason was demographics, the relentless drive of land-hungry Americans and immigrants to own and operate their own farm. This was possible in large part because of internal improvements, especially the Erie Canal and National Road. This laid the foundation for the demographics of the West. Very few Mexican nationals or British subjects lived there. After getting over the Appalachians, the Conestoga Wagons seen here was the primary way of moving west over the Great Plains. The portrait is the "Immigrant train bedding down for the night" by Benjamin Franklin Reinhart. It was painted in 1867, but depicts a scene from the 1840s.

The Revolution achieved independence for a new American republic. American diplomats gained boundaries west to the Mississippi, including areas not won by the Continental Army (1783). This was a notable achievement by the Continental Army and an even more incredible achievement by American diplomats. And thus only two decade later, French Emperor contributed his most important achievement. By selling the fledgling American Republic the Louisiana Territory (1803), he guaranteed that North America would be dominated by the English-speaking people and the fledgling United States. This development would determine the outcome of the 20th century. As a result of the The War of 1812, the Americans finally learned that the Canadians did not want to join them. It is at this time that the vision of Manifest Destiny and reaching the Pacific began to coalesce in the American mind. This had two major complications. Two European powers dominated by the West--The British in Oregon and Spain in Texas and California. Britain in particular was a major world power. And the Royal Navy provided far greater connections with the Pacific Coast than America. Ultimately, extending the boundaries west to the Pacific was determined by demographics--the steady flow of land hungry Americans west. From the earliest point of independence before slavery came to dominate American politics, one of the greatest issues was what came to be called 'internal improvements'. This meant the economic and engineering programs undertaken by state and Federal governments to open up the Western territories. More than anything this meant transportation, project that would help people move west into the largely virgin lands. The Frontier is often described as wide open--it was not There were the Native Americans and all kinds of natural barriers. One of the most notable early frontiersman was Daniel Boone who found he Cumberland Gap. Now that sounds like a large gap in the mountains npinyains. It was not, the first groups that Boone led into Kentucky was on foot. And all refinements at first had to br produced once the Americans got there. Thus internal improvements were needed to get people west beyond the Appalachians. George Washington was a major supporter of internal improves leading to the Chesapeake and Ohio (C & O) Canal. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton was also a strong advocate of internal improvements. The idea of internal improvements, however, became highly contentious. The issue was whether the Federal government has the authority under the Constitution to finance internal improvement infrastructure projects. Many believed that this was the responsibility of the the state and local authorities. And ideological split emerged. The Federalists led by Hamilton believed in a strong Federal Government. The Anti-Federalists/Democratic-Republicans led by Jefferson were intent on limiting the authority of the Federal Government, fearing the evolution of tyrannical government, although Jefferson as president began to shift his views on internal improvements. Internal improvements became what has been described as the first 'flashpoint of federalism'. (These debates continue into our modern American politics.) A huge debate developed over the idea of building a National Road, a road over which wagons could follow from the port of Baltimore into he Ohio River. (The modern U.S. Route 40.) At the time Baltimore was a hugely important port.) While Presidents Jefferson and Madison thought Federal internal improvement projects unconstitutional, they did advocate the National Road which would use the sale of federal lands in western territories to provide funds for the states to build the road. President James Monroe saw the project unconstitutional and vetoed a bill that would have permitted Federal participation--tollbooths to fund road maintenance. This became a major dividing after the War of 1812 between the Democrats and the Whig parties which came out of the Era of Good Feelings (1817-25). The single most important project was the Eire Canal (1817-25). It was built as a state rather than a Federal project. Whig president John Quincy Adams (1825-29) allied with Henry Clay advocate significant Federal internal improvement projects. They were blocked by the election of President Andrew Jackson (1828) who believed that internal improvements were a dangerous expansion of Federal authority. Among other actions, he turned the National Road over over the the states. This was something of an anomaly as Jackson (Tennessee)n was a Westerner like Clay (Kentucky) and Western politicos generally supported internal improvements. Jackson also believed that these contracts were an open invitation for graft and corruption which in fact was the case. Clay formulated the American System, involving governmental grants and a Federal national monetary policy -- central banking conducted by the Second National Bank. President Jackson would kill the Bank. Opposition to federal participation in internal improvements declined slowly during the rest of the 19th century leading after the Civil War to next major project--the Trans-Continental Railway (1869).

Created: 10:00 PM 2/15/2023
Last updated: 10:00 PM 2/15/2023