Figure 1.--Here Chinese women and children in the 1960s bring dung to fertilize the fields. Mao and the Communists saw themselves as a moderizing movement. They were sure that with Communist collectivization and modern technology that agricuktural harvests would not just increase, but prove a cornucopia to go along with the promised worker's paradise. But what actually occurred was the same as in every Communist country--harvests plummeted. In fact a a result of Mao's Great Leap Forward, harvests plunged. China had been no stranger to famine. But the Great Leap caused the most devestating famine in human history. Not only we grain harvests poor, but Mao had the Communes take away the private plots and pigs. In only a few years amist food shortages, however, this decision was reversed.

The People's Liberation Armies after more than two decades of civil war and war with Japan decisively defeated the KMT Armies (1948). The People's Republic was founded (1949). Chairman Mao introduced the Agrarian Reform Law (1950). This law was publicized as giving the land to the peasants. Landlords and even well-to-do peasants were rounded up and tried in drum-head People's Courts. Many were simply executed. Others were subjected to reeducation--meaning political education. The fact that some of these people were China's best farmers was simply ignored. Party officials moved throughout China to oversee and speed up the transition from privately owned land to 'shared' land. Peasants soon found that they did not own the land and the land they had own was being taken away from them. It was the state that owned the land The Government began a campaign oversee the establishment of small scale collective farms. As it developed, 20 to 30 households would share the work on the land assigned to them. These new communes or collectives were based on the Soviet Kolkhutz program. The fact that Soviet collectivization had actually substantially reduced agricultural harvests did not affect Chinese Communist thinking. A factor here was that the impact on Soviet harvests was not openly publicized by Soviet authorities. It did not comport with Soviet propaganda of the glories of Communism. Of course even if it had the impact was known it may not have made a difference. Other Communists in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have not been deterred from the same failed policies. Seizing their land led to protests from land-owning peasants. They had been promised land by the Communists and were now having it taken away from them. The peasantry became workers on the communes. The were each assigned a home and a small plot of land on which they could grow their own vegetables and raise a pig and a few chickens. They also theoretically received health care and paid holidays. The school system was expanded and schools were opened in the country side. Along with the collectivization came efforts at modernization. The Government began investing in fertilizers, hybrid seeds, and irrigation systems. China began using the military and slave labor from concentration and reeducation camps to build dams, roads and railways in rural areas to modernize the agricultural sector. Despite the Government investment in modernization schemes and collectivized agricultural harvests did not increase.Mao was not pleased with the pace of collectivization. Against the advise of leading party officials, he sped up collectivization. And he increased the size beyond 20-30 households originally planned. This effort became the rural part of the Great Leap Forward. In fact as a result of Mao's Great Leap Forward, harvests plunged. China had been no stranger to famine. But the Great Leap caused the most devastating famine in human history. Not only did grain harvests plummet, but Mao had the Communes take away the private plots and pigs. In only a few years amidst food shortages, however, this decision was reversed. The industrial side of the Great Leap was an equal failure although less deadly. Such failure might cause a normal person to question his beliefs. Not Mao. Not only did he not question his ideology, but began to plot against the Party leaders who did question his policies and judgement. His answer was the Cultural Revolution. The Red Guards were organized to go after those who had dared question Mao or Communist orthodoxy.

Civil War Victory (1948)

The People's Liberation Armies after more than two decades of civil war and war with Japan decisively defeated the KMT Armies (1948). The People's Republic was founded (1949). One of the promises Mao and the Communists, like Lenin and the Bolsheviks in Russia, had made to the peasantry was bread and land. This is what they expected.

Agrarian Reform

Chairman Mao introduced the Agrarian Reform Law as one of the first major Communist reforms (1950). This law was publicized as giving the land to the peasants as Mao had promised. Landlords and even well-to-do peasants were rounded up and tried in drum head People's Courts. Many were simply executed. Others were subjected to r education--meaning political education brutally conducted. The fact that some of these people were China's best farmers was simply ignored. Party officials moved throughout China to oversee and speed up the transition from privately owned land to 'shared' land. Peasants soon found that they did not own the land and the land they had own was being taken away from them. It was now the state that owned the land. The Government began a campaign oversee the establishment of small scale collective farms. As it developed, 20 to 30 households would share the work on the land assigned to them. These new communes or collectives were based on the Soviet Kolkhutz program. The fact that Soviet collectivization had actually substantially reduced agricultural harvests did not affect Chinese Communist thinking. Ideology was important even if it did not work. A factor here was that the impact on Soviet harvests was not openly publicized by Soviet authorities. It did not comport with Soviet propaganda of the glories of Communism. Of course even if it had the impact was known it may not have made a difference. Other Communists in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have not been deterred from the same failed socialist policies. Seizing their land led to protests from land-owning peasants. They had been promised land by the Communists and were now having it taken away from them. The peasantry became workers on the communes. They were each assigned a home and a small plot of land on which they could grow their own vegetables and raise a pig and a few chickens. They also theoretically received health care and paid holidays. The school system was expanded and schools were opened in the country side. The commune was to become the basic unit of China’s socialist system, but would be affected by several major and often abrupt changes China's political and economic policy. Conflict focused on three major issues, 1) local decision making, 2) family land plots, and 3) payment of wages

Modernization

Along with the collectivization came efforts at modernization. The Government began investing in fertilizers, hybrid seeds, and irrigation systems. China began using the military and slave labor from concentration and reeducation camps to build dams, roads and railways in rural areas to modernize the agricultural sector. Despite the Government investment in modernization schemes and collectivization, agricultural harvests did not increase.

Great Leap Forward (1958-60)

Mao was not pleased with the pace of collectivization. Against the advise of leading party officials, he sped up collectivization. And he increased the size beyond 20-30 households originally planned. This effort became the rural part of the Great Leap Forward (GLF). This meant individuals lost their all important private plots and pigs--a very important source of income. Wages were equalized. The industrial side of the GLF was an equal failure although less deadly. The CPC decided to promote communes in the cities. This as modeled on a commune set up in Zhengzhou, Henan. The goal of rural and urban communes were the same, to increase production and social 'cohesion'. The CPC attempted to collectivize living arrangements and socializing domestic labor, meaning housework traditionally done by women. The idea was to free up female labor for productive work. This was seen as a way of pushing China forward on the road to socialism. All of this was based on ideology, not actual results.As a result of Mao's GLF harvests plunged. China had been no stranger to famine. But the Great Leap caused the most devastating famine in human history. A major issue here was the commune members had lost their private plots.

Interregnum (1961-65)

We are not entirely sure what happened in Chinese communes after the Great Leap Forward. Mao lost absolute control and reformers began to undo the damage done in the GLF. Mao bided his time, but noted who was criticizing him. While China backed away from the Maoist GLF policies, there was no slackening of hostility to the West. We are less aware at the ground level what was going on in the communes which were a vital component of the Chinese economy. China was still a very agricultural country. And commune production was the major component of output. We think that the commune members began to get back their family plots, but we do not yet have much information. What ever thr peasabntry's feeklings about Communism, the peasants that starved, but survived the GLF had one very widespread belief--they did not want to starve again. And possession of a family plot, even if small as the besr insurance against starvation. Communist authority was not weakened by the GLF. No one lost his job because of the GLF disaster, of course it was because Mao himself was personally resoonsible. So beyond reclaiming their family plots there was not much else they could do. Communist authorities still prohibited peasant sales in local markets because it looked like capitalism which it was. .

Cultural Revolution (1966-76)

Such massive failure as Mao generated in the Great Leap Forward might cause a normal person to question his beliefs. Not Mao. He continued to aspire for the Great Leap Forward policies. Not only did he not question his ideology, but began to plot against the Party leaders who questioned his policies and judgement. His answer was the Cultural Revolution. The Red Guards were organized to go after those who dared question Mao or his Communist orthodoxy. He had bided his time and then struck. His critics were arrested by Red Guard units that formed across the country. The Red Guards all carried Mao's Little Red Book as they rampaged through China. Some of his critics were murdered by the Red Guards or sent into the country side to do menial work. This spread from those had criticized Mao to China's entire educated elite and bureaucracy who Mao saw as a fundamental threat to his ideology. He essentially declared war on the Chinese state. 【Kotkin】 One unintended consequence of this was that it largely destroyed China's planning apparatus that had been established once the the Chinese economy since the Communist victor (1948). This meant it ushered in a period of turmoil if not chaos. In the Communes there were major changes. Economic decisions in China began to be taken at the production-brigade and commune levels. And with less control from Beijing, the peasants in the communes who had no interest in starving again began to change the operation of their communes and engage in market behavior, selling produce in local markets. 【Zhou】 This was not something promoted by the CPC. In fact it was illegal. But Mao and his Red Guards in attacking the state, had loosened the CPC's ability to rigorously control the economy. It was the Chinese peasantry that recreated the market economy. And the weakened CPC only grudgingly went along.

Post-Mao: Market Reforms (1976)

Chairman Mao died (1976). Even before Mao died, China began to change. Nixon went to China (1972). Following Mao's death, a power struggle ensued. The Gang of Four attempted to seize power and attacked reformist Deng Xiaoping who Zhou Enlai had helped rehabilitate. The Gang of Four was suppressed by Mao's chosen successor, Hua Guofeng. Deng outmaneuvered Hua Guofeng and became China's paramount (by 1978). Deng who was impressed with the monumental success of the Asian Tigers, especially Singapore began to tolerate market reforms (capitalism) that the Chinese pleasantry had launched. Deng's more crucial role was deciding to switch partner's from the Soviet Union to the United States. This and the market reforms were the foundation for China's monumental rise. 【Kotkin】 This was made possible by the rapprochement with the West, especially the United States. Capital and technology flowed into China which could be efficiently used because of the market reforms. And the United States opened its market. Deng achieved Most Favored nation trade status in the United states (1980). The CPC would like us to believe that what followed was all its work. It was to a degree by loosening the controls by which, as in the Soviet Union, it was strangling economic growth and achieving access to the American market. But this was not the case with the communes and the launching of marker reforms.. It is widely believed that the CPC granted unprecedented local and individual autonomy to the communes. And the communes were gradually dismantled and farmers encouraged by the CPC to cultivate expanded private plots and sell the produce for profit in local markets. This is not the case. In the chaos of the Cultural Revolution the communes began to change as control by the central government weakened. It was the Chinese peasantry changed China not because of the CPC, but in spite of it. 【Zhou】 Commune members began to sell in local markets. At first this was limited, but gradually increased as commune members not only sold the produce of small family plots, but began to gain control of communal land meaning essentially expanded family plots and over time the communes disappeared. And these peasants with their new found wealth moved to the towns and created family enterprises and then to the cities where the began ton found substantial corporations. 【Kotkin】 This was not a change promoted by the CPC, but a ground level change launched by the peasantry and pursued by their urbanized descendants. It was the Chinese peasantry that created China; economic expansion through market economics, only grudgingly tolerated by the CPC. 【Zhou】 Even Deng who is seen as the force behind China's rise, attempted to control and limit the entrepreneurial spirit of the Chinese peasantry. One attempt was to limit the unfolding development of market reforms (i.e. capitalism) to Special Economic Zones, but in the end was unable to contain the process. 【Kotkin】 It then rather successfully hijacked the credit for the whole process. The CPC has gradually been reconsidering the land holding policies and has been granting farmers greater control over the land they farm to promote greater investment in farms and increased output and income. major reforms were announced (2008). 【Wong】 These reforms have not yet granted the peasantry ownership of the land they farm or the right to sell it. Without this it will be difficult to promote investment. And is still unclear how all of this will be affected by Xi's policies and growing restrictions on market economics. Xi is the most powerful leader since Mao and with the Orwellian controls on private behavior made possible by modern technology has far greater control than Mao himself.

Sources

Kotkin, Sterphen. "Pesci-ent Knowledge: Stephen Kotkin On Xi’s China, Putin’s Russia" Goodfellow, (hoover Institute: 2022. This is a kind of papel discussion, but it is Kotkin tjhat discusses thr Chinese peasantry and communes.

Wong, Edward. "China announces land policy aimed at promoting income growth in countryside" New York Times (October 12, 2008)

Zhou, Kate Xiao. How the Farmers Changed China: Power of the People (Boulder Colorado: Westview Press, 1996), 275p.

Created: 4:50 AM 6/13/2016
Spell checked: 9:11 PM 3/20/2023
Last updated: 9:12 PM 3/20/2023