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The Supreme Court countenced segreagation in the Plessy vs. Fergusson decission (1898) and a system of racial aparthaid enforced by law and the lynch rope ruled the American South until well after World War II (1939-45). The United States has changes so much since the 1960s, that young people today have no concept of the dimensions and complexity of the segregation system. There was no one segregation system because the segregation laws were state laws. Thus there were several different systems with differences which existed in each state. The system was not confined to the South. The mid-western state of Kansas, for example, had seggregated schools. The system was, however, most entrenched in the 11 Southern states of the old Confederacy. This was not a system enforced by genteel discrimination and social attitudes. It was enforced by laws. the courts, and the police. And to ensure that blacks did not attempt to assert their rights, there was a pervasive system of extra-legal terror conducted by the Klu Klux Klan, which in many cases, was a part of the local police structure. While there were differences from state to state, the primary purpose in each state was marginalize a group of Americans on the basis of race. The system as sanction by the Supreme Court in Plessy was based on the principle of "separate, but equal". But as administered in every Southern states was to ensure black people were given inferior servives and denied basic civil rights.
The Federal Government through Reconstruction attempted to establish the civil rights of the newly freed slaves. The cornerstone of this effort was the 14th Amendment which guaranteed equal protection under the law. Southern state legistatures gradually passed Jim Crow laws which were clearly discriminatory. It was thus inevitable that these state laws would be challenged in the Federal courts. Homer Plessy boarded a car of the East Louisiana Railroad that was designated for whites only (1892). Plessy was one-eighth black and seven-eighths white, but under Louisiana state law he was classified as an African-American, and thus required to used the designated colored car. Plessy refused to leave the white car and was arrested. His case eventually reached the U,S. Supreme Court as Plessy vs. Fergusson (1898). The landmark Supreme Court decision strongly countenced segreagation and the overall system of racial aparthaid. The system enforced by law and the lynch rope ruled the American South until well after World War II (1939-45). Plessy established the legal doctine of "separate but equal". This was the only legal way of supportinmg segregation because the 14th Amendment had guaranteed "equal protection" under the law" for all Americans. The court vote was definitive-- 7 to 1.
The hope of real freedom for the emancipated slaves after the Civil War was quashed by racist state governments after the withdrawl of Federal trops in the 1870s. State Governments enactted what became known as Jim Crow laws. Jim Crow was an a popular antebellum minstrel show character. The gains achieved by blacks during Reconstruction were gradually eroded by racist Jim Crow legislation and extra legal terror fomented by the Klu Klux Klan. Lynchings and mob vilolence througout the South cowed blacks into submission and prevented them from voting in any significant numbers. They were no longer slaves and this in essential was a substantial imprvoment, in many ways--not the least in freedom of movement and stability of family relatinships. They were, however, denined basic civil rights and as a result any substatial economic opportunity.
The United States has changes so much since the 1960s, that young people today have no concept of the dimensions and complexity of the segregation system.
There was no one segregation system because the segregation laws were state laws. Thus there were several different systems with differences which existed in each state. The system was not confined to the South. The mid-western state of Kansas, for example, had seggregated schools. The system was, however, most entrenched in the 11 Southern states of the old Confederacy.
This was not a system enforced by genteel discrimination and social attitudes. It was enforced by laws. the courts, and the police. And to ensure that blacks did not attempt to assert their rights, there was a pervasive system of extra-legal terror conducted by the Klu Klux Klan, which in many cases, was a part of the local police structure.
While there were differences from state to state, the primary purpose in each state was marginalize a group of Americans on the basis of race. The system as sanction by the Supreme Court in Plessy was based on the principle of "separate, but equal". But as administered in every Southern states was to ensure black people were given inferior services and denied basic civil rights.
Despite the Supreme Court ruling, there was no pretense of offering equal facilities. The system was used to humiliate and and support the doctrine that white people were superior. A typical Mississippi newspaper editorial proclaimed, for example, "If every negro [in the state] was a graduate of Harvard and had been elected class orator, he would not be as well fitted to exercise the rights of sufferage as the Anglo-Saxon farm laborer." 【Clarion-Ledger】 A postmaster in the Mississippi Delta made a practice f crossing out the title of Mr., Mrs., or Miss. on all letters addressed to black patrons, seeking to deny any titles to black peopale. 【Slayton】
The first aspect of the segregation system that comes to mind when one begins to study the system was how amazingly complex it was. Another issue is cost. Having separate systems entailed costs. The most economically significant was work place segregation which essentially denied econiomic opportunity to African Americans. This meant a societal cost. Denying opotunity meant that the society as a whole suffered because large numbbers of Americans were not making the contribution to the economy that they were capable of making. This was one area where the restrictions were not based on law, but rather societal custom and emoloyer contribution. The most notable aspect of segregation was school segregation. This meant that every southern state and some other systems had two separae school systems. Perpupil expenditures for African Americans were much lower than for White students--a fundamental violation of the Plessy dictum of 'separate but equal'. A too often ignored asoect here is that the children coming out of these schools had real academic achievement, in contrast to he disgraceful stadards of many sdchools educating Afrivan-Anerican children today. A wide range of other Governmernt services were also segregated or set upnso African Anericans did not receive the same level of services as Whites. Public recreational facilities were also segregated. Here the approach varied state by state and locally. Parks were either fully segegrated or divided into black and white sections. There were black abd white state poaeks. The approach to city parks varied. Often there were black and white ben ches and drinking fountains. Swimming pools were often for whites only or in some days blacks were allowed to use them on a separate days, often the day before the water was changed. Segregatd transportation varied. The type of conveyance affected the system. Trains within the South had special cars for blacks. Generally busses were segregated by having blacks sit in the back. The approach to transportation also varied from state to state and even by municipalities.
A reader from Misissippi writes, "Why are you dreging all of this up? This is all past. It's better forgotten." Well what you are really saying is do away with history, at least an honest assessment of history. This is of course what the Soviets did. The KGB would go into libraries and got out articles and photographs from old newspapers. Our idea is that there is value in history and in the honest investigation of our past. I find the readers attitude interesting. It is an opinion that is widely held in the South, but no longer universally. I used to live in both Alabama and Mississppi. Many of the people I knew shared this attitude, but interestingly they were often interested in history--in many cases Civil War history. My general impression is southeners love their hstory. Many of my friends would have been offened if I would have criticized them for dreging up Stonewall Jackson and Robert E, Lee. And of course the issue of flying the Confederate flag at courthouses and state legislatures is still a controversial issue. Many are outraged that their heritage is being disregarded when the display of the Confederate flag is restricted.
Slayton, Robert A. "When integration was a crime," Washington Post, December 18, 2002, p. A35.
Clarion-Ledger, Mississippi's leading nmewspaper, cited by Slayton.
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