Revolutionary War Military Campaigns: Second British Offensive--Three-pronged Thrust to Divide the Colonies (June-October 1777)

Figure 1.--German-American artist Emanuel Leutze painted this image of Catherine Schuyler destroying crops to keep the advancing British army from harvesting them--. This was an actual incident in the Revolutinary War. Catherine Van Rensselaer (1734-1803) was born in Claverock, New York, into as the name suggests a Dutch family, in this case a wealthy family. She was well educated, unusual for girls at this time. She married Phillip John Schuyler (1755). He was also from a wealthy land-holding Dutch family. Some time later the Schuylers inherited land near Albany and built an profitable estate there. You van see their manor house on top the hill. Schuyler with the outbreak of the Revolutionary War joined the Patriot cause and was appointed a major-general under General Washington. British General Burgoyne commanded British troops formed the northern prong of the Second British Offensive (1777). He drove south from Canada through the baccountry wilderness toward the Hudson Valley. The objective was to meet up with Gen. Howe driving north up the Hudon Valley and join forces at Albany, spliting the Colonies in two. This was near where the Schuyler estate was located. The arrogant 'Johhny' Burgoyne to his misfortune underestimated the Americans. He was slowed down by the resistance encountered in the backcountry. There was more support here for the Patriot cause than any the coastal cities. The Patriots felled trees, set up road blocks, destroying provisions, and conducted guerrila attacks on foraging units. Gen Schuyler who was with Washington, wrote to his wife and ordered her to the extensive wheat fields and to request that his tenants do the same. It was all part of the effort prevent the British from obtaining provisions. The cattle can also be seen being driven away. And the coash is standing by so Mrs,. Schuyler can make her escape. The problem with the British plan that operations in the interior could not be supported by the Royal Navy. This mistake would lead to the destriction of two British field armies--Burgoyne at Saratoga (1777) and Cirnwallis at Yorktown (1781). Leutze shows the bave Mrs. Schuyler and her older daughter bravely setting the fire herself with her younger child, an overseer, and a loyal slave holding the candel and lattern. Leutze titled the painting 'corn fields' Corn at the time was the generic term for grain. Today art historians have retitled it 'wheat fields' -- 'Mrs. Schuyler Firing her Wheat Fields on the Approach of the British.'

The British objective in their second important American offensive was to split the colonies in two. The goal was to divide the colonies along the lines of the Hudson River Valley, separating New England which was the heart of the rebellion from the rest of the colonies. Once the colonies were separated, they could be defeated in detailvusing the mobility provided by the Royal Navy to concentrate available forces. The colonies would be unable to provide mutual support. Intrense planning went forward. A whole new field army was transported to Canada under Johnny Burgoyne. His orders were to drive south down from Canada while Howe would move up the Hudson. A third smaller force with Indian allies was to move east along the Mohawk. The three prongs were to meet at Albany, effectively spliting the Colonies. British commander Barry St. Leger and Native Americans moving east beseiged Fort Stanwix, but withdrew to Canada when Benedict Arnold relieved the fort. The loyalty of the Native Americans had been weakened because they were unwilling to participate in the set peace battles preferred by the British. Lake Champlain was like a highway headed south. Burgoyne seized Fort Ticondraga and then plunged into the heavily forested western wilderness. Here the struggle for a new nation bgan in the northwest wildreness. Nowhere in America was a worst place to commit a British field Army. They could not be supported by the Royal Navy and many of their inherent advatage were lost in the wildreness. In the forested morass without roads, moving a modern army proved increasingly difficult. One author writes, "No matter how strong an invading force, it wa still very difficult to completly seal off, surround, and decisively defeat an opponent within a huge forestd region. Repeatedly, the British uceeded in driving the patiots into wooded and swampy areas, but they could not destroy them. Another burden the English War Ministry fced was that no matter how well trained and diciplined their troops, they simply could not surpass in fighting skills those who had been born and raised in th wilderness .... In the end, such forest skills helped the patriots to achieve a victory so crucially needed in the opening stages of the Revolutinary War." [Logusz, Musket Vol. I Saratoga] Burgoyne suffered significant casualties as he moved south, especially at Benington. Major General Beneduct Arnold again played a major role in the fighting. Horatio Gates' army defending Albany stopped Burgoyne near Saratoga Springs. There he consolidated his forces, assuming that Howe would move north and relieve him. Inexplically, Howe never came. Burgoyne's supplies running low, he attempted to break out at Freeman's Farm and Bemis Heights. Again Benedit Arnold played a key role in the fighting. Burgoune was finally forced to surrender (October 17, 1777). Saratoga was the most significant American victory of the War at Saratoga (1777). The problem with the British strategy was it put a British Army in the American hinterland where the Royal Navy could not offer support and the population most supportive of the Patriot cause. The victory was achieved by the new Conitental Army and the militias. The surrender of a British army was almost unconceivable at the time. (The only other time this happened Corwallis' army at Yorktown (1781) and Percival's army at Singapore (1942).) The ramifications were enormous. The Americans not only defeated an entire British army, but the American victory and Franklin's brilliant diplomacy convinced the French to enter the War.

British Plan

The British by 1777 knew they were no longer fighting a rag-tag force of rable., but most military commanders assumed that victory was still assured. Saratoga was part of a British master plan for the summer of 1777 to split the Colonies. The British objective in their second important American offensive was to split the colonies in two. The goal was to divide the colonies along the lines of the Hudson River Valley, separating New England which was the heart of the rebellion from the rest of the colonies. Once the colonies were separated, they could be defeated in detailvusing the mobility provided by the Royal Navy to concentrate available forces. The colonies would be unable to provide mutual support. Intrense planning went forward. A historian writes, "The planners of the 1977 campaign did not envisage it would be difficult, or drawn out. This was not an unreasonable assumption given that the key advantages seem to lie with Great Britain. Most of the major cities, along with entire coastal regions and centers of communication were held by the British .... Led by commanders withbprevious experience of campaigning in North America, the British armies were composed of professional soldiers with years of fighting behind them, reinforced with many loyal American sympathizers as well as Indian warriors. [Logusz, Musket Vol. 2 Mowhawka] General Johnny Burgoyne would drive south from Canada and seize Albany. General Clinton would drive north up the Hudson Valley and join up with Burgoyne at Albany. A smaller British army commanded by Barry St Leger and made up primarily of native Americans would seize Fort Stanwix and move on Albany from the West. Not only would the Colonies be split, but any defending American force might be captured in mass. The plan was poorly conceived and did not take in account the problems of moving through the the North Amerucan wilderness where roads did not exist or the consequences on American public opinion of using a Native American force. Perhaps the greatest weakness was planning a campaign in the depths of the wilderness where British forces would be giving up their greatest advantage--the support of the Royal Navy.

Continental Army

The British Army under Howe which landed at New York during the summer of 1776 inflicted one devestating defeat on Washington and the fledgling Continental Army. The Continentals came as close to being destroyed asan army can get. Not only was it a small fraction of what Washington had begun with, most of the enlitments of those remaining were about to run out. Only Washington's miraculous victory at Trenton on Christmas Day prevented the disolution of Washington's battered army. This was Britain's best change of victoty. Had Howe more aggresibly pursued Washington, the Revolutionwould have failedand a substantial number of Patriots would have hung. Ase How conquered territory, he had to leave behind a grrison. This reduced his combat force. In addition, a remarkable tranformation occurred over the Winter. Washington somewhow turned his green Continental Army even before French aid arrived, into a force capable of going toe-to-toe with Howe and his British regulars. The disasters of 1776 put enough of a scare in Congress tht they did thir best to meet Washington's requests as wll as making some changes of their own. Enlistments were lengthen. The authorized size of the army increased and washington's requests concerning cavalry and artillery were approved. [Wright, pp. 91-93] This would be proved in the 1777 Summer campaign which could not have been more different than what occurred in 1776. The British 1777 campaign plan was based on the Continental Army it fought in 1776, not what it actually enountered in 1777.

Burgoyne: The Northern Prong and Saratoga

The British after landing a huge army at New York (1776), up the ante by transporting a whole new field army to Canada under Gen. John 'Gentleman Johnny' Burgoyne. The American endevor had become a very expensice undertaking. Burgoyne was not only an army officer, but a politician and dramatist. He first saw action during the Seven Years' War when served in several battles, most notably during the Portugal Campaign (1762). He became known throughout the army for his dashing figure and his fashionable uniforms. He became known as "Gentleman Johnny." He was an invenerte gambler. Burgoyne used his ployical connections to get the American command. His orders were to plunge into the North merican widerness abd drive south down from Canada while Howe would move up the Hudson. A third smaller force with Indian allies was to move east along the Mohawk. The three prongs were to meet at Albany, effectively spliting the Colonies. Burgoyne unlike Howe held the Continentl Army with disdain. Having faced well-euipped and led European armies, he believed that the americans could be easily fefeated. He faced at enormous logistical prolem, but that did not stop him from adding a long baggage train to provide wine and other refinements. The Encyclopedia Britanica claims that he was defeated by a superior American force a Saratoga. This is no entirely correct. He began with a substantial force. It was his tactics and mismanagement as well as the American wildreness that reduced his command and left it without provisions when he emerged from the wilderness near Saratoga.

Lake Champlain (June)

Lake Champlain is an elongated natural, freshwater lake in North America. It is located primarily within the borders of the United States (Vermont and New York), but partially situated across the Canada—United States border in the Canadian province of Quebec. It streaches south toward the Hudson River Vlley. The British plan was put in motion with Burgoyne moving south from Canada (June). At first it seemed to be going well. The British moving south on Lake Champlain easily seized Fort Ticonderoga without a fight. Lake Champlain was like a highway headed south, but after Ticonderoga, Br=urgoyne faced the wolderness with out tods or rivers running south.

Wilderness Fighting

After taking Fort Ticodroga and Lake Champlain, Burgoyne plunged into the heavily forested western wilderness. Here the struggle for a new nation began in the northwest wildreness. Nowhere in America was a worst place to commit a British field Army. They could not be supported by the Royal Navy and many of their inherent advatage were lost in the wildreness. In the forested morass without roads, moving a modern army proved increasingly difficult. After Lake Champlain, Burgoyne found it increasingly difficult to move his cimbersome army complete with camp followers through the heavily wooded American wildreness. There were substantial losses of men through sickness and low-level attacks from militiamen. One author writes, "No matter how strong an invading force, it wa still very difficult to completly seal off, surround, and decisively defeat an opponent within a huge forestd region. Repeatedly, the British suceeded in driving the patiots into wooded and swampy areas, but they could not destroy them. Another burden the English War Ministry fced was that no matter how well trained and disciplined their troops, they simply could not surpass in fighting skills those who had been born and raised in the wilderness .... In the end, such forest skills helped the patriots to achieve a victory so crucially needed in the opening stages of the Revolutinary War." [Logusz, Musket Vol. I Saratoga] Burgoyne suffered significant casualties as he moved south. Burgoyne sent a column to supress the militia, but they were badly mauled at Bennington. Major General Beneduct Arnold again played a major role in the fighting.

Saratoga (August-October 1777)

Picking the most decisivev battle of the Revolutionary War is no easy matter. Another potential choice is the Battle of Trenton (1776), because it kept Washington and his army in the field. Never again did the Americans come so close to defeat. The Battle of Saratoga was also critical. Arnold after relieving Ft. Stanwix joined the American Northern Army commanded by Horatio Gates. Gates had moved north to Saratoga Springs where he chose a strong defensive position. Arnold and Gates quaraled over the conduct of the battle. There he consolidated his forces, assuming that Howe would move north and relieve him. Inexplically, Howe never came. Burgoyne's supplies running low, he attempted to break out at Freeman's Farm and Bemis Heights. Again Benedit Arnold played a key role in the fighting. Burgoyne moved on the American forces (September 17). Arnold and riflemen under Daniel Morgan attack the British center column at Freeman's Farm. They are joined by Gates' main army. Although at the end if the figting an British flanking attack forces them to withdraw to their fortified positions. The British retained possession of the battlefield at Freeman's Farm and built redoubts where they waited 3 weeks for Clinton to arrive from the south. The American force was still swelling. The fighting had stopped the British advance and had inflicted very serious losses on Burgoyne's army which was already depleted from the treck through the wildeness and the fighting at Bennington. The British use of Native American allies inflamed the backwoods Americans. Large numbers joined Gates' forces, swelling his force to 12,000 more than double Burgoyne's army. Meanwhile his supplies were running low and in the middle of the American backwoods there was no way to resupply his army. Burgoyne decided probe the American lines and struck at the left flank (October 7). The British and German mercenaries were beaten back with heavy losses and the loss of the Breymann Redoubt. Again Arnold, who had been releaved of command by Gates, played a key role in the fighting and is severely wounded. Burgoune was forced to retire north to to Saratoga Heights with his 4,000 remaining troops (October 8). The American force swelled to over 20,000 men which Gates used to suuround Burgoyne's army. He no longer had the option of retiring back to Canada. Burgoyne was still hopeful that the British southern force would soon reach him, but in fact they had not even begun to move north. Burgoyne had no choice but to surrender. When Gates threatened a final assault, Burgoyne finally surrendered (October 17). The news electrified the Colonies. Many did not believe a British field army could be defeated. The surrender of an entire British field army to colonial rebels shocked the world. Saratoga was the most significant American victory of the War up to that point. The problem with the British strategy was it put a British Army in the American hinterland where the Royal Navy could not offer support and the population most supportive of the Patriot cause. The victory was achieved by the new Conitental Army and the militias. The surrender of a British field army was almost unconceivable at the time. (The only other time this happened Corwallis' army at Yorktown (1781) and Percival's army at Singapore (1942). The ramifications were enormous. The Americans not only defeated an entire British army, but the American victory and Franklin's brilliant diplomacy convinced the French to enter the War. The British defeat resulted in a sense of the bitterness and despair for the nation that could have so easily possessed the whole of North America and all the potential consequences for the European ballance of power. Not only was the British attempt to divide the Colonists defeated at Saratoga, but it convinced the French to enter the War, a crucial development to the American cause. Gates' victory at Saratoga was in lrge part due to Arnold;s actions. Even so, is fame led to him being appointed to command the American southern army which he led to destruction putting the American cause in peril. Gates fled from the battefield at the height of the fighting.

St. Leger: The Western Mohawk Prong

The Mohawk River is a 149-mile-long river dominating central New York and the main tributary of the Hudson River reaching the Husdon just north of Akbany. At the time of the Revolution central New York was a vast wilderness area. In an area without roads, the Mohawk was a highway headed east toward the Hudson River. British commander Barry St. Leger like Burgoyne descended from Canada, but with only a small force, nothing like Burgoyne's army. St. Leger expanded his small force with Native Americans and moved east. The Scotts-Irish in the frontier were anti-Btitish to begin with, but joining with Native Americans hardened their support of the patriot cause. Settlers in the area had bee terrorized by the Iroguois fighting for their land. Now the Iroqquois were the war-painted spearhead of the British Empire. St. Leger and the Native Americans beseiged the patriot Fort Stanwix and nearly seized it. The British western force invested Ft. Stanwix. A small American force commanded by Benedict Arnold managed to save Fort Stanwix in the Mohawk Valley and disperse the Native American forces. St. Leger and the small British force retired to Canada. The loyalty of the Native Americans had been weakened because they were unwilling to participate in the set peace battles preferred by the British. This deprived Burgoune of needed support he had expected as he approached Albany. His major acconplishment was to enflamed sentiment toward the British throughout the bavkcountry.

Howe: The Southern Prong and Brandywine

The major British force in America was commanded byGeneral Sir William Howe. And unlike Burgoyne he had a secure base in New York from which he could supply his army. He was to move his army up the Hudson River and meet Burgoyne and St Ledger around Albany. For reasons still unknown to history, he failed to move north. Perhaps he was cincerned about a move into the wildreness which would have meant leaving his reear dangerously exposed to Washington's Continental Army. How did fight a major battle with the Continentals alomg the Brandywine River (September 11, 1777). Howe launched a flanking attack against Washington's Continentals, deployed in a defensive position along the Brandwine River. He hoped to destroy the Cointinental Army in a major field engagement. Durung the 1776 battles in New York and New Jersey, the Continental Army proved itseld incapable of fighting a major engagement with the British. Howe drove the Continentals from the field, but unlike the 1776 campaign, it was not a rought. Many Continentals stood and fought toe to toe with the British. [Harris] Howe could not have concluded anything, but that Washington was suceeding in building a capable army. And this must have affected his thinking about the advisabilit of plunging into the wilderness to met up with Burgoyne. Howe and the British did succeed in taking Philadelphia, the American capital. It proved, however, a phyric victory. Seizing Philadelphis was not like taking a European capital which usually meant victiry. It had no real impact on the American cause. Congress just moved further west to Harrisburg. With the loss of Burgoyne's Army, the ballance of power in North america was altered. Howe decided that Philadelphia could not be held and had to withdraw the following year.

Sources

Harris, Michael C. Brandywine: A Military History of the Battle thatlost Philadelphia but Saved america, September 11, 1777 (2014), 528p.

Logusz, Michael. With Musket and Tomahawk Vol. I: 'The Saratoga Camppaign and the Wilderness War of 1777' (2012).

Logusz, Michael. With Musket and Tomahawk Vol. II: 'The Mowhawk Valley Campaign in the Wilderness War of 1777' (2012).

Wright, Robert K. Jr. The Continental Army Army Lineage Series (Center of Military History: U.S. Army: Washington, D.C., 1983). Chapter 5 goes into great detail with the reforms that Congress and Washington implemented to improve the Continental Army. Many in Congress thought the Revolution could be won by state militias and a hastially assembled Continental Army. The disasters of 1776 convinved Congress that aprofessionally organized Continental Army would be needed.