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war and social upheaval: the American Revolution Revolutionary War intelligence
The American Revolutionary War: Intelligence (1776-83)
Figure 1.--This charming Philadelphia-born lady may not look like a stereotypical spy, but she surely was the most dangerous spy in all of American history--threatening the whole Patriot enterprise. Intelligence played an imprtant role in the Revolutionary War, and at important points, from the beginning in Boston to the end in Yorktown. It arguably played a more important role than in any other American war, largely because the British enjoyed such a substantial military superiority. Women were involved on both sides. One of most dangerous spies was Loyalist Margaret 'Peggy' Shippin who came very close to wrecking the whole American enterprise. Her husband, Benedict Arnold is much better know. Tragically if Arnold had not turned tritoe he would have been the one of the most celebrated Americans in history, only exceeded in prominance by Washington. Peggy who introduced him to Major André played a key role in his treason. This is Peggy safely in England with her daughter after the War. We believe the girl is Sophia Matilda Arnold (1785-1828). The porrtait was painted about 1790 by portraitist Daniel Gardner.
Intelligence has played an important part in America's wars. And this was the case from the very beginning. Intelligence and espionage played an important role in the American Revolutionary War. America was an especially fertile ground for inteligence gathering because the population included large numbers of people who were either loyalists or patriots as well as many who were uncommitted to either side. And there was no way of identifying spies from ethnic or national background. Both Patriots and Loyalist looked alike and in the same region had the sme accents. (There is even some evidence that Americans of English ancestry still had what might be called English accents, although there are different thoughts on this.) From the beginning in Boston, intelligence and espionage was important. Women played key intelligence roles. Patriots in Boston warned the militias across the Bay in Massachusetts that the Briish were coming. Spies were in fact everywhere. One especially high-placed spy was of all people General Howe's wife in Boston. He shipped her home to avoid an arrest and trial. Philadelaphia became a hotbed of spying because the Continenal Government (the Congress) was located there. Washington did not at first appreciation the importance of espionage, perhaps because of his concept of military honor. The disaster of 1776 after the arrival of the British Fleet and Army changed that. He quickly realized that he would need every resource he could muster to save his Army, let alone defeat the British. He thus became deeply invested in the spy business. [Kilmeade and Yaeger] One historian writes. "George Washington, having realized his mistake when he evacuated New York City in 1776 in not establishing a stay-behind spy network, did not make the same mistake twice .... [During] the spring of 1777, he instructed General Thomas Mifflin to set up a spy system in Philadelphia. Washingtion's instruction specifically included the recruiting of Quakers as spies because they would draw the least suspicion as they refused on religious grounds to serve in a military conflict." [Nagy] When the British occupied Philidelphia, Washington was thus able to use Patriot spies to keep apraised of British intentions. And after the British withdrawl to the New York area, Loyalists kept the British apraised of Congress and the Continental Army. The most famous Patriot spy was Nathan Hale who the British hanged rather than the more honorable execution by firing squad. Washinton kept informed of British developments in New York through the Culper Ring, a spy network organized by Major Benjamin Tallmadge (summer 1778). The Culper Ring was critical because from the arrival of the British (1776), to the final withdrawl, New York and its port was the center of British military power in America. The identity of the Culper ring was so closely held that Washihgton himself did not know one name. Another name only emerged in the 20th century and another has never been identified. [Kilmeade and Yaeger] The British also had intelligence operations. Their most notable agent was spy master Major André who was conspiring with Patriot hero Beneduict Arnold to seize control of West Point, a key American strong-point on the Hudson. Arnold had played a key role at the crucially important Partiot Saratoga victory as well as heroic, but unsuccesful invsion of Canada. Arnold was extremely close to Gen. Washington. Arnold's wife Peggy Shippen was deeply involved in the conspiracy, but she escaped discovery by posing as a 'mere' woman. Arnold appears to have turned to treason when he came to think he was not being rewarded sufficently for his role in the Revolution. His wife seems to have fuelded those feelings. Arnold escaped leaving Peggy in the lurch. But she staged an Oscar-worthy fit of hysterics that convinced Washington, who showed up at West Point by accident, that she was entirely innocent. The Americans caught André, again by accident. He asked to be executed by firing squad rather than hanged. The fact that the British had hanged Hale meant that André had to be hanged.
Fertile Ground
Intelligence has played an important part in America's wars. And this was the case from the very beginning. Intelligence and espionage played an important role in the American Revolutionary War. America was an especially fertile ground for inteligence gathering because the population included large numbers of people who were either loyalists or patriots as well as many who were uncommitted to either side. And there was no way of identifying spies from ethnic or national background. Both Patriots and Loyalist looked alike and in the same region had the same accents. (There is even some evidence that Americans of English ancestry still had what might be called English accents, although there are different thoughts on this.)
Boston (1776)
From the beginning in Boston, intelligence and espionage was important to the success if the Revolution. Women played key intelligence roles. Patriots in Boston like Paul Revere, Samuel Prescott, and William Sawes warned the militias across the Bay in Massachusetts that the British were coming, leading to the actiins at Lexington and Concord. Some say Revere's name is best temembered because of Longfellow's poem--'The Midnight Ride of Pail Revere' and was chose because it rhymed. Revere did not complete the ride, but it was Revere who was the best known Patriot agitator who had participated in the Boston Tea Party. He played a major role in organiziing the courier network. Spies were in fact everywhere. One especially high-placed spy in Boston was of all people General Howe's wife. Ur us duffucukt to imagine a better placed soy. Howe seens to have learned of her activities and shipped her home to avoid an arrest and trial.
Nathan Hale (1776)
The most famous Patriot spy was Cpt. Nathan Hale who the British hanged rather than the more honorable execution by firing squad. Cpt Hale did not seek to be a spy he was a soldier, a captain of the 19th Regiment of the fledgling Continental Army
Continental Arny commander General George Washington sought a volunteer for a dangerous mission. Washington needed information on British dispositions as the Battle of Harlem Heights was shaping up. Cpt. Hale stepped forward not knowing what the dangerous mission was. He thuis became America's first major spy. Hale was a Yale-University educated officer. He disguised jimself as a Dutch schoolmaster. He managed ro get behind British lines on Long Island. And he hathered useful information on British troop deployments and movements for several weeks. The British landed on Manhattan abd seized the city (September 15, 1776). A fire broke out (September 20). Gen. Howe British veloeving this was sabotage. put his soldiers on alert for Patriot soes and saboteurs. The next day Cpt. Hale was captured sailing Long Island Sound (September 21), He was trying to cross the Sound and rejoin the Continental Army. Hale despure is heroism, faulked as a soy, but the Amerivan were learning,
Philadelphia (1777-78)
The Americans, inclusing Gem. ashington were fast learners, aboiur both war abd espionage. After almos destroying Washington's Army (1776), the next Brurish offensive was the Pennsylvania Campaign (1777). Kearning from Hale's sacifice, American spies were of necesity begoning more artful. The British seized the Ameruican capital, Philadelphia (September 1777). And with the British in bpth New York and Philadelphua and his Army still poorly trained and armed, Washington desperately needed intelligence of the enemy's intentions and movements. His first chouce was a man of both intelligence and cunning and familiar with the local populace and territory. His fitst choice was General Nathanael Greene's aide-de-camp, Major John Clark Jr. of Pennsylvania. Clark's operations centered on Philadelphia. Even after the British evacuated Philadelphia (June 1778), Philadelaphia continued to be a hotbed of spying because the Continenal Government (Congress) was located there. That was where Benedict Arnold and his wife Peggy Shippin got involved in the Revolutionary spy game.
General Washington
Gen. Washington did not at first fuilly appreciation the importance of espionage, perhaps because of his concept of military honor. The disaster of 1776 after the arrival of the British Fleet and Army changed that. He quickly realized that he would need every resource he could muster to save his Army, let alone defeat the British. He thus became deeply invested in the spy business. [Kilmeade and Yaeger] One historian writes. "George Washington, having realized his mistake when he evacuated New York City in 1776 in not establishing a stay-behind spy network, did not make the same mistake twice .... [During] the spring of 1777, he instructed General Thomas Mifflin to set up a spy system in Philadelphia. Washingtion's instruction specifically included the recruiting of Quakers as spies because they would draw the least suspicion as they refused on religious grounds to serve in a military conflict." [Nagy] When the British occupied Philidelphia, Washington was thus able to use Patriot spies to keep apraised of British intentions. And after the British withdrawl to the New York area, Loyalists kept the British apraised of Congress and the Continental Army.
New York and its vital port was the center of British military power in Americam from the British arrival in 1776 to their departure in 1783. The disaster at Saratoga had taught the Brirish not to venture to deep into the American interior. In ports supported by the Royal Navym they were unasailable. Thus intelligence from the New York City was vital for Gen. Washington and his Continental Arny. Gen. Washington had not left a spy nerwork in place when he was forced on short notice to evacuate (Sepotember 1776). The Continental Arny defeared an enrire British Arny in the inerior at Saratoga (October 1777). The British withdrew fron Philadelphia because it was too far inland` (June 1778). The War has reached a stalemate. The Americans controlled most of the countryside, but could not dislodge the Brirish from New York and other ports. It was this became vital to know what the British were doing in New York City. Gen. Washinton selected Continental Army Major Benjamin Tallmadge to organize and manage a spy network in New York City (Novenber 1778). This was the origin of the Culper Ring. And Tallmadge kept informed of British developments in New York through the Culper Ring It operated prinarily in New York City (1778-83). Tallmadge constructed his netwirk primarily from friends he nade while goung to school on Long Island. The Culper Ring took its name from the operational code names of two of its important members: Abraham Woodhull (code-named Samuel Culper) and Robert Townsend (code-named Culper, Jr.). Amazingly, during irs 5 yearsof operation, the British did not discovr one member. There were several other agents, including Caleb Brewster, Austin Roe, Anna Strong, Hercules Mulligan, and Townsend’s paramour, known even today only by her code name '355'. The identity of the Culper ring was so closely held that Washihgton himself did not know one name. Another name only emerged in the 20th century and another has never been identified. [Kilmeade and Yaeger]
Major André (1780)
The British also had intelligence operations. In fact, the British had much more experiebce with espioonage--dating back centuries. The Euroeans who had been fughting each other since the fall of Rome, has refined espionage to a fine art. Their most notable agent was spy master Major John André. He oversaw British espopnage activities in North America. His most potentually importan effort was centered on West Point, a crutically important Americab strong point on the Hudson River. He was conspiring with Patriot hero Gen. Benedict Arnold to seize control of West Point. Arnold had played a key role at the crucial Partiot Saratoga victory as well as the heroic, but unsuccesful invsion of Canada. Arnold was extremely close to Gen. Washington. Arnold's wife Peggy Shippen was deeply involved in the conspiracy, but she escape discovery by posing as a 'mere' woman. Arnold appears to have turned to treason when he came to think he was not being rewarded sfficently rewarded for his role in the Revolution. His wife seems to have fuelded those feelings. Arnold escaped leaving Peggy in the lurch. But she staged an Oscar-worthy fit of hysterics that convinced Washington, who showed up at West Point by accident, that she was entirely innocent. The Americans caught André, again by accident. He asked to be executed by firing squad rather than hanged. The fact that the British had hanged Hale meant that André had to be hanged.
Sources
Kilmeade, Brian and Don Yaeger. George Washington's Secret Six: The Spy Ring That Saved the American Revolution (2014), 256p.
Nagy, John A. Spies in the Continental Capital (2011, 256p.
