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A refugee is a person who has become homeless because of a war or other conflict in their home country or because they have been targeted because of their ethnicity, gender (meaning violation precived gender conduct), sexuality, race, religion, social class, speech, or other attribute or conduct. The largest numbers of refugees are created by wars or other violent clashes. Refugees also flee when governmens are overthrown and new standards of conduct or belief are imposed on a population. Other refugees are creted when a Government begins to target specific groups. This was often the case when Europe was dominated by imperial power or in the 20th century totalitarian powers (Fascist and Communists) seize control of a country. Here the number of refugees is affected by geography. Many Russians after the Bolshevik Revolution were unable to flee or Poles after the NAZIs and Soviers invaded and occupied their country. Religion at times has been involved, such as the Jews expelled from Spain and other Europen countries or the Hugenots escaping persecution in France or the Puritans escaping opression in England. Race has also been a factor, most notably groups targeted by the Germans and Japanese during World War II. In our modern age, individuals desiring civil liberties have fled generally to the West which recognizes free speech and civil liberies. There is a tradition in the West, especially Britain and France of granting asylum to refugees. Over time formal legal processes have developed as well as internationl agencies to care for refugees. Some of these agncies include the American War Refuge Board WRB), United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), and the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR). Not all refugees have fled their countries, there are also the internally displaced. Refugees are normally a small part of a population. Two countries today have populations largely composed of refugees or immigrants sharing some characterisrics of refugees the descendents of refugees. One interesting development concerning refugees is when second or third generatiins began to see the oppresive power that drove their parents or grandparents in a favorable light. A related issues are these fleeing poverty and economic chaos, complicated by the fact that once in a new country they may support policies that made their original country poor. Another important topic is the use of refugees by certain groups. Here the Palistinian Arabs are the best example. There are still refugee camps nearly seven decades after First Arab-Isreali War, an unprecedented situation. In the 21st century, Afghanistan was the largest source country of refugees, a position it has held since the Soviet invasion. Some one out of every four refugees in the world today is an Afghan, living in Pakistan and Iran. In recent years, a major refugee problem has developed in Syria, although today most are still internally displacd.
A refugee is a person who has become homeless because of a war or other conflict in their home country or because theyhave been targeted in their country because of their ethnicity, gender (meaning violation precived gender conduct), sexuality, race, religion, social class, speech, or other attribute or conduct.
The largest numbers of refugees throughout history have been created by wars or other violent clashes such as the Tsarist pograms that drove Russian Jews to America. Refugees also flee when governments are overthrown and new standards of conduct or belief are imposed on a population. Other refugees are created when a Government begins to target specific groups such as the NAZI assault on Jews. This was often the case when Europe was dominated by imperial powers, but raised to a new level of intensity by the rise of the totalitariab powers in the 20th century totalitarian powers (Fascist and Communists). While war and violence have been the major creatgors of refugees in history, this began to change in the late-20th century. This is not to say that war and violence no longer cause refugee flows, it is to say that a new cause of refugees has risen in importance. Many Europeans thought that capitalism had serious flaws and socialism could create a more just society. The optimism of the turn-of the 20th century was dashed woth World war I and many refugees. This began the msrch toward the welfare state in already industrialized countries. Another socialist appracj was totalitarian (Communist and Fascist) resulting in World War II and a massive refugee flow. After World War II
the decolonization process began. The new Third World leaders even more than Europeans were embued with socialist idealism. Many were also impressed with the Soviet Union and thus not paricularly concerned with democracy, the rule of law, individual rights, in short the attributes of economic and political freedom. The result was chatisrtophic failure throughout the Third World. well developed industrial country can support a costly welfare system, but using socialism to develop a backward Third World country was a recipe for failure. The Asian Tigers showed what capitalism could accomplish as had China, but the damage had been done. And people by the millions are now fleeing failed countries gor the prosperity and freedom of the West. Ironically the same socialist ideal continues to have advocates in Europe and America despite the clear evidence that socialism means economic stagnation and that it is capitalism that can gentate economic growth.
Here the refugee story varies on a geographical basis and is affected by geography.
The Middle East and North Africa is the first region where we gave found evidence of refugees. They would be the Jews Moses led out of Egypt. A few centuries later the Babylonian captivity and the return to Palestine were other refugees. We know the Assyrians and Babylonians took similar actions against other people who, however, did not leave a chronicle of their experinces. Another refugee group were the Muslims and Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal (1490s). Most were taken in by North Africans, especially Morocco, amd oher areas of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey during World War I launched its Armenia genocide. Some Armenians survived as refugees. In more recent times, the Arab-Israeli conflict created both Arab and Jewish refugees. And Islamic radicalism has created both Muslim and Christian refugees in both Iraq and Syria.
We know most about refugees in Europe. We suspect that this may be because we are most familiar with European history. Whether Europe has more of a history of refugees at least until after World War II we are not sure. But we know more about them. The Germans as well s the Celts before them appear to have been driven west by war-like Steppe tribes. The Jews expelled by the Romans from Palestine were refugees settling mostly in the Roman Empire (1st century AD). Bzantines fleeing the Ottomans brought with them classical works and help park the Renaisance (14th century). The Jews and Muslims expelled by Spain and Portugal settled within the Ottoman Emppire, escpecially Morocco, loosely controlled by the Ottomans (1490s). The first great wave emigration in modern Europe occurred during the Religious wars (16th century). The French expelled the Hugnoughts. The Germans expelled the anabaptists. And the Pilgrims escaped from England and the grasp of the established church. The Scotts and Irish might be considered refugees from Britain. The Jews were driven by the Tsars from their empire, many seeking refuge in America. European emigrants to America were nostly economic refugees, but their were poolitical refugees, especially after the 1848 reviolutions. The real refugee wave came in the 20yth century with various groups fleeing genocide and totalurarian oppression.
Some Russiand were ble to flle the Soviet Union in the early years, but generally totalitarian powers created barriers to refugees, seeking to restrict details on their ipresive refimes from leaking out. Many Russians after the Bolshevik Revolution were unable to flee or Poles after the NAZIs and Soviets invaded and occupied their country.
We know little about Latin America. The major refugees are Cubans and others fleeing Communism. The large numbers of Hispanics fleeing Mexico and other countries are economic migrants. Ironically once in America, many Hispanics favor many of the same policies that created the conditions they fled from.
We do not know much about African refugees until the post-World War II De-colonization process. The resulting wars, tribal conlicts, Islamic extreemism, and oppresive leaders have created large numbers of refugees, in some cases huge numbers. Congo has been especially troubled. A genocide in Rawanda and Darfur have been especially tragic.
Asia is the most populace continent. The largest refugee crisis resulted from the partition of the British Raj and the creation of India and Palistan (1947). Potentially the largest refugee crisis could have been China after the Communist seizure of power (1948), but China managed to prevent many from escaping as did North Korea. Some refugees managed to escape Communist, Cambodia and Vietnam.
Religion is another major cause of refugee flows. This was usually not the case in the ancient era. Ancient peoples could be very brutal, but religion was not commonly the reason. At the time dieties were seen as gods of a particular peoople and important to make war on other peoples with different gods. Conquered people might be put to the sword, but they usually did not have the conquerors religion imposed upon them. Which makes sence if a god was the diety of a specific people. Several imperial regimes were especially tollerant when it came to religion: Persia and Rome. Now this may seem when it comes to Rome vecause we all know about the persecutions Jews and Christians. But bioth were a rare excepotion. Rome did not pececute either Jews or Christians because of any problem with theology--it was concerns over political loyalty. With the transition to modern times this changed because of the rise Abrahamic religions (especially Christianity and Islam). Chistianity was not tolerant of other religions. It did tolerate Jews, to a degree. This changed over time. Spain was the most tolerant country in Europe, but this changed with the completiuon of the Reconquista. Both Spain and Portugal expelled Jews and Moslems (1490s). Islam tended to be more tolerant, but like Christianity the degree of toleration varied over time. Islam in our modern era has become extrodiarily inttolerant. And like Christianity befor the modern era this included both toward other religions as well as other sects of Islam. With Islam the conflict has primarily between Shi'ia abd Sunni, but there are other sects. With Christiamity, the Great Schism split the Church between Catholic and Orthodox sects (1054). Conflicts ensued, but were limited to an extent by geograohic separation. The Protestant Reformation (1517) prived much more violent as Catholics and Protestants lived together and led to bloody religious wars (17th century). Prominent examples are the French Hugenots escaping persecution in France or the Puritans escaping opression in England. Tsarist Russia was extemrly intolerant of Jews, but conquered areas with Jewish popularions leading to pogroms. Many Polish/Russian jews fled to America and to a lesser extent Europe. Totalitarian Commnunism begining with the Soviet Union launched brutal atheistic campaigns.
Race has become a major factor in modern history. The impact of face on refugees is complicated. Race in the ancient an medieval eras was much less significant than is case in our modern world. Race was not a fctor unknown to the ancients am medieval peoples, it just was not the poweful force it has become. This began to change with the European maritime outreach. As contacts were developed with Native Americansnd Africans the idea began to develop that Europeans were superior. Part of that was ehat was seen as the true religion. And as India and China was so rich, a purely racial outlook was hard to conceoualize. This changed as science devloped in the West along with capitalism. The resulting Industrial Revolution propelled the West over both India and China. As a result a more racial outlook developd currency in the West, jutified by social Darwinism. Now the most obvious impact of racism is African slavery, bith the Arab and European slave trade. In terms of oppression this is hihh on the lost, but we are not sure slavery fits into our discussion of refugees as we slaves were a captive prople, but a people fleeing oppression. Of course the Underground Railway and the Maroons in the Caribbeam cerainly can be considered refugees. As can blacks fleeing the rural South after World War I. The race mania reached its peak with the NAZIs and World War II. Which the NAZIs brought racism to a whole new level. They were not just comverned with trafitional racism involving White, Blacks, Native Americans, and Asians, but created elaborate categries of Whites. Their hatred toward Jews is well known, but thy also identified other White groups for destruction. The result was mass murder and setting Europe awash with refugees. The last major World War II refugee group was the Germans driven out of Eastern and Central Europe by the people they attempted to dominate and in many cases destroy. The Japanese were also highly racist and created large numbers of refugees, mostly in China. After World War II large numbers of refugees
After World War II, new groups of refugees appeared. Some had religious and nationl bases, such as Muslims and Hindus in India and Jews and Muslims in Palestine. The later was a relatively small number of refugees, but has attracted great attention. Huge numbers of regugees now come from the Africa, Asia, Latin America, Middle East and North Africa, and Oceania. Many come from the new nations resulting from pt-World War II Decolonization. Here it is difficult to separate refugees from economic migrants. And that dichtomy is further blured by the fact that economic migrantion is in large part generated by the denial of economic freedom by socialist or socialist-influnced regimes. Religious fanaticism is another limiting mchanism. Both socilisr regimes and theocracies share many featues, mist primently the sbance of the rule of law. This is related to race bcause many of these countries have populations with identifiavle racial populations.
In our modern age, individuals desiring civil liberties have fled generally to the West which recognizes free speech and civil liberies. There is a tradition in the West, especially Britain and France as well as the Netherlands and Switzerland. of granting asylum to refugees. After its creation on thevlate-18th century, amnerican became a haven for political and religious freedom, not without its flaws, but for much of the 19th century, america was the only democratic republic of any importance. It also offered economic freedom and material success. America declared its independence in the same year that Adam Smith published Wealth of Nations (1776). And no country adopted market caputalism to the same extent as the United States. Thus it is unclear just how important civil liberties were as opposed to economic prosperity. The victory of the West in the Cold War is often seen as a victory for political freedom (democracy), but it is arguably economic freedom (capitalism) was the deciding factor. Some historians argue, for example, that it was West German TV commercials that was the deciding factor in the Cold War struggle for the soul of Germany. The Liberal thesis is that capitalism will create a middle-class that will demand political power. That is what happdned in Europe. And this largely occurred with the Asian Tigers that began the economic explosion that has thrust people from abject poverty to the prosperous middle-class. The history of the 21st century will largely be determine by wther this thesus plays out in China. Thre is not yet any indication that it will.
The United States virtually invented modern humanitarianism when the German Army invaded neutral Belgium abd seized the Belgian civilian food stocks. American charities were organized to save Belgium, both Belgian refugees and Belgians remaining in their country. Before this, charitable efforts to save refugees occurred, but never before to save an entire nation. Charitable orgaganizations were organized for Belgium and as the War spread to other countries, committes were organize to aid other countries. The International Red Cross had been organized in the late-19th century to aid soldiers and civilians caught up in the carnage of War. World War I was its first real test, but as virttually all of Europe was drawn into the War, available resources were unavailble to meet the needs. Thus it was the American Red Cross that was primarily involved in assisting starving populations and refugees. Most of the committees formed were just to meet the World War I emergency. A few begame permanent agencies. One of the most important was the Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Save the Children. Many more groups were formed during World War II, although this time governments played a greater role. Much of this was done by the United States under the United Nations ruberic. This replaced the World War I effort of the American Red Cross. In World War II the American Red Cross was primarily restricted its efforts to assisting soldiers and POWs. Again there were many private groups organized. One of the most imporrant groups which became a permanent group was CARE. There were also private corporations involved. One especially interesting group was the American Seaboard and Western Airline.
Over time formal legal processes have developed as well as internationl agencies to care for refugees. Some of these agncies include the American War Refuge Board WRB), United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), and the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR).
Not all refugees have fled their countries, there are also the internally displaced.
Refugeees have been a tragic problem throughout history. For the most part it has been a personal and humanitarian problem, but not a circumstance that has had a major impact on history. It was something that was generally ignored by political or military leaders as inconsequential, but there are exceptions to this general rule. Some refugees have had a major impact on world history. There are not a lot of instances of this, but there are some very important examples impacting very important historical developments. We note scholarly refugeees from Byzantium fleeing the Ottoman Turks bringing ancient classical texts to the West that played an important role in fueling the Renaissance (14th-15th century). We note French Hugenought refugees fleeing the French suppresion of Protestants. France loss some of its best minds and perhaps most importantly, finest naval talent. After this France was never competive at sea in its many wars with Britain. The English monrchy's attempt to suppress non-coformists Protestant scects, drove the Pilgrims and other non-conformists to America, fundamentally influencing the character of what would become the United States. France, Portugal, and Spain suceeded in keeping non-coformidsts (Protestants and Jews) out. The Russians drove out huge numbers of Jews in the late-19th and early 20th century. This enriched the American immigrant community providing large numbrs of energetic and talentd people. And to cap this off Hitler drove out German Jews. These refugees included some of the most talented and educated refugees in history. And has Max Planck warned Hitler, he was disarming Germany in nuclear physics. German brutality in Belgium during World war I set large numbers of refugees in motion. The Germans thought it was a matter of little importance. In fact in completely changed the image of the German nation from a modern progressive state, to a brutal, lawless nation. Although it itself dis not bring America into the World War I, it create a public relations climate that would make American entry possible. And that would fundamentally change the balance of power in Europe, preventing what would have been German dominated Europe. Jewish refugees after World War II created the state of Israel. While the creation of Israel that created Israel. It was the Middle Eastern Jews driven out by each Arab country that led to Israel's success and ability to resist repeated attacks by much larger Arab armies.
One interesting development concerning refugees is when second or third generatiins began to see the oppresive power that drove their parents or grandparents in a favorable light. A related issues are these fleeing poverty and economic chaos, complicated by the fact that once in a new country they may support policies that made their original country poor.
Another important topic is the use of refugees by certain groups. Here the Palistinian Arabs are the best example. There are still refugee camps nearly seven decades after First Arab-Isreali War, an unprecedented situation.
Refugees are a part of history from the very beginning of humanity. Humans spread around the world at the very time modern humans evolved. It is believe that the impulse that drove early humans out of Africa was climate change. Early humans may have followed herds out of Africa. And with the development of civilization, wars created refugees. One of the most important mechanisms was early empires moving popultions out of their hime land for security purposes. We note the Assyrians, Babylonians and Egyptians doing this, in part because of Biblical references. The Romans conquered many people, often enslaving the conquered people. We are not sure they should be called refugeess, But the Jewish Diaspra might be considered the story of refugees. Celts and Picts fleeing the Romans might be comsidered refugees. And the Germns driven into the Roman Empire by savage Steppe tribes surely should be classified as refugees. Abd the Romanizd Celts fleeing the Anglo-Saxon invaders as well as the Anglo-Saxons fleeing the Vikings seem to qualigy as refugees. Jews were often driven from Western Christian countries to Eastern Europe and Muslim lands during the Medieval era. And with the Reformation and Counter Reformation there were religiou refugees (17th century). The Hugenoughts fled from France. Dissenter groups fled their homelands. tHe Netherlands and England offered refuge. The Puritans were essentially religious refugees. We do not know much about 18th century refufees. The 19th century was, however, was a time of massive population movements. Millions of Europeans moved to the america, especially the United States. The first major group was the Irish as as a result of the Potato Famine. After the merican Civil War (1861-65). Hiunge numbers of Europeans flooded into America. This included Jews and Christian minorities from the Russian Empire. Many different nationalioes cam from the austro-Hungaroian Empire. And large numbrs came from the various mnation states, especially from Italy. The 20th century also sw larg numbers of refugees, adter both World War I and II. Amercica restricted emigration after World War I. Both Jewish and non-Jewish refugees were involved, but because of the NAZI obsession to killing Jews, the non-Jews were more likely to survive. The largest refugee movement was ultimately the Germans driven from Eastern Europe, but there were many more. Jews came from Europe and Muslim lands (mostly Arab). Palistinians Arabs fled Jewish control in the new state of Israel. Large numbers of refugees fled Communism in both Korea and Vietnam. After the American withdrawl we have the phenomenomn of the Boat People. In the 21st century, Afghanistan was the largest source country of refugees, a position it has held since the Soviet invasion. Some one out of every four refugees in the world today is an Afghan, living in Pakistan and Iran. In recent years, a major refugee problem has developed in Syria, although today most are still internally displaced.
Most regions and countries have over the course of their history expereienced both the fleeing of refugess as well as their arrival from other countries. Policies differed on how the refugees were allowed to move. This depends greatly on how the term refugee is defined. There have been both refugees moving with in and out of countries. Countries have also experienced the arrival of refugees from other regions and countries. Just as refugees have departed an arrived in countries for various reasons, countries have developed a wide range of policies for dealing with the arriving refugees. Some have refused to admit them, in some cases turning them back brutally. Other countries have admitted refuggees, sometimes carrying for them in various ways. A few countries were actually built on refugees, if the term refugee is extended to include economic refuggees. These include America, Australia, Argentina, Canada, and New Zealand. The United States is the country most associated with receiving refugees And the American experience until recently has been most associated with accepting European refugees. China, Germany, Japan and Russia/Soviet Union have been the countries most associated with setting refugees in motion. We know less about Chinese and Soviet refugees becauuse totalitarian Communist Chuna abd the Sovies resticted movement of their citizens and refused to let them leave the ciountry--least it reflect poorly on the impact of their policies. The major change in recent history has occured in Europe and the Third World. Europe has changed from a region creating refugee flows to a region over time has been Europe's transition from a region generatin refugees to one attracting and accepting refugees-although is becoming kincreasingly controverial. The other major change is in the Third World. People there are aware of the propsperity of the West and incountries nor adopting wealth generating capitalist economic peoigrams, people are attempting to reach the West.
Some of the most tragic people in history are those unable to flee. When we discuss refugees we are often discussing groups that sucessfully fled drought, famine, climate change, economic exploitation and collapse, repression, persecution, and even murder in their home countries. Some of these disastes such as drougt and famine are as old as time. Persecution and economic collapse are more modern phenomenon. And they are especially notable with the rise of totalitarian societies in the 20th century. he NAZIs were actually very proud of their persecution policies and did not limit the rfugee flow. As the persecution shited to murder, policies changed and they did begin restricting the refugee flow and also attempted to hide what they were doing. The Communists were somewhat different. They did not want to create a refugee flow as it would reflect badly on the utopian societies they claimed to be creating. And refugees coul be useful to create a Gulag of slave labor. Where there was a security threat, sich as the Ukrnian peasantry resisting both Communism and collectivization, Stalin decided in amore immediate sollution--starvation. And the NKVD prevented any refugee flow so the most deadly famine in European history occurred without most of Europe knowing about it. Mao's Communist regime in China proved even more deadly thn the Soviets. And again the Chinese security forces prevented any massive emigration flow. The geography of China and border with other Communist countries also prevented majore refugee flows. Although some Chinese mananaged to make it into Hong Kong. The huge Chinese population also meant that the world could not provide for the masive problem the Chinese created. There were massive refugee flows whereever the Communists seized power, but soon ended through murder and a hardening of borders by security forces.
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