Figure 1.--The New Deal was of course created and managed by President Franklin Roosevelt who had to answer to all kinds of poilitical pressures. Mrs. Rossevelt was not elected so she was far freer to act and became essentially the heart and soul of the New Deal. By the time of the election, the President and First Lady had essentually a businrss relationship. Elenor had am unhappy childhood. Her parents were dysfunctional. Her father seen here was affectioinate, but an unstable acohplic. Her mother was distant because Elenor was not a beutiful child. The result was an unhappy childhood. The lives of of her two younger bothers seen here in New York in 1892 here were also tragic. The older biy died in childhood, a victim of scatlet fever. Elenor played a rolein raising the younget boy--Hall. Like their father, Hall showed enornous promise, but destroyed himself with alcohol. And then finally, Franklin who she idolized, betrayed her by an affair with a young woman she had trusted as her personal seceatry.
The Depression and the New Deal had a huge impact on the United States. And the individuals associated with both pursued ideas and policies that still resonate in American society for good and bad. As a result, it is useful to look at the individuals involved. There were both administrative New Dealers as well as Congressional figures/ There were also sympatheic academics who spread the idea that the New Deal had ended the Drepression which what ever uts merits, it did not. Here we will include not only New Dealers, but those who played an important role in opposing the New Deal like Huey Long and Father Coonklin. The New Dealers were of course mostly Democrats, but not all. The most prominent Republican New Dealer was Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia, New York's beloved 'Little Flower'. The New Del eventually ended with World War II. Few of the important New Deal figures would play an important role in the American war effort. In fact many New Dealers were uncomortable with Presidents transition from New Dealer to war leader. Some like Agriculture Secretary anbd Vice President Henry Wallace were sympathetic to the Soviets. An exception was Harry Hoplins who played a key role in the war, especially the fight to save Britain. As the War crisis loomed, the President found incresing spport fro those who had opposed the New Deal and decreaing support from important New Dealers.
Thurman Wesley Arnold (1891 – 1969) is a prime examole if the intelectuals that the New Deal brought to Washington. He was not a Marrxist but like most New Dealer who came out of the Progressive Movement, he had serious doubts about capitalism. Almost to a man they blamed the Depression on capitalism and capitalists. The role of the Government, including the Federal Reserve, in turning a normal market downturn ino the Great Recessiin was either unknown or supressed. And us still widely practived by the modern Democratic Party. Arnold served in World War I and then pursued a career in law and politics. He was mayor of Laramie, Wyoming, and then a professor at Yale Law School, where he took part in the legal realism movement. He published three books, two before coming to Washington to join the New Deal: The Symbols of Government (1935) and The Folklore of Capitalism (1937). While in Washinhton, he published The Bottlenecks of Business (1940). Arnold is primarily assiciated with his trust-busting campaign as Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division in the Department of Justice from (1938-43). Now trust-busting is not anti-capitalist per se, although in the hands of lawyers and politicians dubious or hostikle to capitalism, it certainly can be. And it should be remenbered that the whole point of the New Deal was to get the economy working again. Ultimately President Roosevely decided to get Arnold out of the Justice Department because he was impairing the World War II war effort whichwas based on capitalism to produce a tidal wave of war material. The President nominated him for the Federal Judiciary, whrre he served as Associate Justice of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia.
Bruce Barton (1886-1967)
Brue Barton during the 1930s was one of the best known Americans, although he was only elected to two Congressional terms. He is best known today as an advertising man. Many American history textbooks mention when discussing the corprate mentality of the 1920s (rather like the 80s.) Barton co-founded the advertising agency that eventually became Batten, Barton, Durstine and Osborn (BBDO). The company came to symbolize the great adverising firms of Madison Avenue. There accounts included GM and GE which they turned into household names. He also edited a weekly magazine that was an early attempt at the Life and Look format. He wrote novels, magazine articles, and interviewed the notables of the day. His editorials focused on morl uplift.More than anything else, he was known at the time for his hugely popular book, The Man Nobody Know (1925). Baron in the book depicting an entrepreneurial Jesus as an executive in a corporation. Barton insisted that Jesus was the "founder of modern business", picking "up twelve men from the bottom ranks of business and forged them into an organization that conquered the world." As an advertizer he became involved in politics as a spin merchant. He worked in both the Coolidge (1924) and Hoover campaigns (1928 and 32). Barton ran for Congress himself. He won an election to replaced a Congressman who died in office. was elected twice (1936 and 38). His Congressional distruct was the "silk stockings district of Manhattan. He alligned himself closely with the Republican Paty leadership, opposing the New Deal. He identified with the isolationists. He also tended to vote against the increasing defense appropriations the President was sending to the Congress. Barton's tendency to vote with the Pepublican leadership (especially Joe Martin) earned him inclusion in Roosevelt's spirited, mocking litany, "Martin, Barton, and Fish" during the 1940 presidential campaign. He ran for the Senate in 1940 and was defeated. After the War his ad agency worked for Republican candidates, including Dwight Eisenhower. [Fried] Barton retired from BBDO in 1961.
Charles Beard (1874-1948)
One of the most respected American historians of his age was Charles Beard. He has been described as a "progressive" historian and emphasized economic facrors. He stimulated a major reassessmenent of the founding fathers. He published profusely and his work had a major impacr on school textbooks. He was at first a prominant liberal supporter of President Roosevelt and the New Deal. He broke with the President as he began to take a more assertive position in foreign affairs. Beard argued for "American Continentalism". He insisted that America had no vital national interests in Europe. And he believed that American involvement in another European war could give rise to dictatorship at home. Beard was thus one of the most important academic spokesmen opposing American interventionism. Unlike many liberals, Beard's opinions did not shift as the dangers from Germany and Japan and then the Soviet Union became apparent. He wrote a book after the war (President Roosevelt and the Coming of the War (1948). He charged that President Roosevelt lied and tricked America into the war. It was not well received. American and liberal opinion had shifted as a result of the War. The book was viewed as an apologist for isolationism and attempt to justify his support of isolationism before the War. Most historians saw how close the American and Western democracy has come to disaster and the critical role President Roosevelt had played in the Allied victory. Beard's once formidable reputation was destroyed.
Adolph Berle
Adolf Augustus Berle Jr. (1895–1971) was a noted American lawyer, educator, author, and diplomat. He was one of President Roosevelt's famous Brain Trust. His best known book was The Modern Corporation and Private Property, an exploration of corporate governance. It was not an anti-capitalist Marxist dialog. Rather it was a factual recognition that the United States economy was highly concentrated in the hands of the largest 200 corporations. And corporations were largely controlled by compamy managers despite shareholders' formal ownership. The question what to do about it. The typical progressive resomse was to breakup the corprations ignoring potential impacts in a competitive world economy. Berle suggestedm "The law of corporations, accordingly, might well be considered as a potential constitutional law for the new economic state, while business practice is increasingly assuming the aspect of economic statesmanship." [Berle, p.313.] Berle became involved in the Alger Hiss affair. It was to Berle that Whikaler Chamvers went to when he repoered Hiss's Soviet connections. Berle was less than hinest when the nvestigation behan several years later. His principal concern appears to have been to protect the Truman Administratiin. He was also assiciated with Congressman Vito Marcantonio, a Communist sympathizer. Berle final years were spent in the Lenndt Afministrayion effort to combat Communism in Latin America. Berle as active in the Liberal Party primarily concerned with vonfronting far-left and Communist influences.
William E. Borah (1865-1940)
Senator William E. Borah was a major force in American politics for most of the first half of the 20th century. He was a progressive in domestic legislation, but a staunch isolationist in foreign affairs. Borah had entered the Senate from Idaho as a pro-Roosevelt progressive Republican (1907). He became known as the "Lion of Idaho". He had voted to enter World War I, but became one of the "irreconcilables" after the War in the fight with President Wilson over the League of Nations. Some Republican senators might have supported the League with reservations. The "irreconcilables", however, were adamantly opposed to the League in any form. They helped defeat Wilson's League of Nations. For unexplained reasons, Borah considered himself an expert on foreign relations. He had no acacademic or personal experience in foreign affairs. Nor had he ever been outide the United States. He took an essentially moral approach to foreign policy. Borah in the 1920s was extremely influential as the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. From this influential post he supported the Washington Naval Conference which attempted to limit naval construction and the Kellogg-Briand Pact. He supported Herbert Hoover for president (1928), but with the Depression became critical. He voted for much New Deal domestic reform legislation but became adamantly opposed to Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policy when he began to oppose Hitler and the NAZIs. He was the ranking Republican member on the Senate Foreign Relations Committe during the 1930s when the Democrats recaptured the Senate. Borah attempted to get the Republican presidential nomination in 1936. He was, however, a powerful voice for the isolationists as President Roosevelt worked to alert Americans to the dangsers posed by the NAZIS and Japanese militarists. He died in 1940. Borah was a good and decent man who was ill prepared to direct foreign policy. From his influential Senate post he advocated policies that placed America in mortal danger.
Charles Coughlin the "radio priest" was born and raised in Canada. He entered the priesthood and moved to Royal Oak, Michigan during the 1920s. His new church needed repairs and he conceived the idea of laubhing a brief radio program on WJR radio station in nearby Detroit. Commercial radio at the time was still very new. The program initially consisted of a short, traditional sermon and homilies followed by an appeal for donations. The program gradually grew in popularity. With the onset of the Depression and hard times, Couglin's tone and the subject matter of his sermons gradually shifted. Couglin shifted his program from religion to economics and politics. He began to talk about socialism and became stidently anti-Semitic. One of his most important themes was to 'restore power to local communities and the individual'. [Brinkley, 1983] Couglin promoted the idea of social justice based upon what he called his social gospel which a rejection of what he saw as an unjust distribution of wealth. He conceived the idea of a Jewish banking conspiracy. [Harvey & Goff, 2004.] Couglin ininitally was a strong supporter of President Roosevelt and the New Deal. Couglin's explanation was Roosevelt or Ruin. [Hadden & Swann, 2004.] Couglin proposed radical economic theories to the President and when they were not excepted, Couglin began to criticize President Rooselvelt and the New Deal. Couglin organized the National Union for Social Justice and an associated political party--the Union Party. He made a major effort to defeat President Roosevelt in the 1936 elections. He of course failed and Roosevelt won one of the most resounding political victories in American history. Even so Coughlin stood as an emensly influential voice during the 1930s. The difficult times created a public anxious for sollutions to their desperate conditions. He was an early master of the medium of radio and had an excellent voice for broadcasting. He also offered a plan to end the Depression, however, simplistic and influenced by anti-Semetic prejudices. Couglin's radio broadcast the Columbia Broadcasting Service (CBS) began to broadcast Coughlin nation-wide. He founded the the Radio League of the Little Flower. He was soon receiving 80,000 letters a week, many with donations.
Martin Dies, Jr. (1900-72)
Martin Dies, Jr. was born inColorado (1900), but was elected as a Democratic Congressman in Texas at the onset of the Great Depression (1930). He was appointed chairman of a Special Committee to Investigate Un-American Activities (HUCA) (1938). And as the first chairman, it is this wirk for which he is best known. The original intention was for the HUCA to investigate both left-wing and right wing political groups. Dies was a fervent ant-Communist and began focusing primrily on left-wing groups. Soon after his appointment the Ku Klux Klan cabeled, "Every true American, and that includes every Klansman, is behind you and your committee in its effort to turn the country back to the honest, freedom-loving, God-fearing American to whom it belongs." Dies claimed that many Nazis and Communists were exiting the United States because of his pending interrogations (July 20, 1938). Onewell known magazine charged that Dies who they described as 'cocksure' wouls target individ uals associated with the left. Dies although a Democrat announced that he planned to investigate aspects of President Roosevelt's New Deal which included many liberal Americans with a range of left-wing outlooks. The main objective of the HUCA became the investigation of left-wing groups. This included looking at the possibility of Communist infiltration. The HUCA was used as a method of blocking the progressive policies advocated by Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. The WPA Federal Writers Project was a favorite target. It is also true that left-wing individuals and groups were using tax funds to further their ideological view. And even more importantly, Soviet agents were developing very effective spy networks ained at penetrating the Federal Government and to secure nuclear secrets.
James Aloysius Farley was born in Grassy Point, New York (1888). His grandparents were Irish Catholic immigrants. He became one of the first Irish Catholic politicians to achieve success at the national level. He rose to become chairman of the New York State Democratic Committee, at the time the mot impoortant sate in the country. During the New Deal, he was chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and Postmaster General. Farley became known as the Democratic political kingmaker. He was the campaign manager for New York State politician Alfred E. Smith's 1922 gubernatorial campaign and Roosevelt's 1928 and 1930 gubernatorial campaigns as well as Roosevelt's presidential campaigns of 1932 and 1936. He predicted landslides victories in both Roosevelt's first two election victories using revolutionary new polling methods. He helped create the New Deal Coalition of Catholics, labor unions, etnics including African Americans, and farmers that came to dominate American politics. Farley oversaw the administration's patronage machine owhich helped build the New Deal. Here the Post Offuce was especiuallybuseful. He handled most mid-level and lower-level appointments, woirking with state and local Democratic organizations. Farley broke with the President over the hird Term, in part because he had polyical ambitions of his own (1940).
Hamilton Fish III (1888?-1991)
Hamilton Fish III was the son of a noted American statesman--Hamilton Fish who was a New York governor and senator before the Civil War and President Grant's Secretary of State. He ably put American and British relations on a more positive trajectory. A grandson charged up San Juan Hill with the Rough Riders and is said to be the first American killed in the battle. He had a son, a grandson and a great-grandson (all named Hamilton Fish) serve in the U.S. House of Representatives. One of them Hamilton Fish III was among the most outspoken isolationists. Fish was an accomplished collegiate athelete. He served during World War I as the commander of an all black regiment (ecept for white officers) known as the "Harlem Hellfighters". After the War, Fish was elected to Congress in a Republican sweep (1920). With the ellection of Franklin Roosevelt (1932), he became a staunch opponent of the New Deal. Ironically, Fish was Roosevelt's own Congressman. Fish not only opposed the New Deal, but also Roosevelt's efforts to ressist the dictators. Fish did cooperate, however, in helping Jewish refugees. Dr. Hans Thomsen was the Charg� d'Affaires at the Embassy of Germany in Washington. The United States after Kristallnacht recalled its ambassador in Berlin (November 1938). The German Government then recalled Ambassador Hans-Heinrich Dieckhoff. Thomsen appears to have accurately assessed the Roosevelt Administration and its anti-NAZI orientation. Like Ambassador Dieckhoff, he reported to Berlin on the President's hostility. While he was in charge of the Embassy, the Isolationist Movement in America gained strength. He did what he could to support the Isolationists and other Americans opposing involvement in another world war. [Thomsett, p. 151.] Thomsen saw an opportunity in the 1940 presidential election to replace Roosevelt with an isolationist Republican. He thus oversaw an effort at the Republican National Convention to pass an anti-war platform. [Stout] Thomsen cabeled the Foreign Ministry that a "well-known Republican congressman" had offered to take a group of 50 isolationists to the convention for a $3,000 payment. (June 12, 1940). [Wallace, p. 262.] He was apparently reffering to arch FDR-foe Hamiltion Fish. There is no collaboration that Fish actually solicited such a bribe. Thomsen asked Berlin for the requested funds as well as the money to arrange for full page advertisements in newspapers during the convention. The source of the finds of course was hidden. The ads were placed. They were written by George Viereck, a German agent working for Congressman Fish. The ads appear to have had some affect. Thomsen reported back to Berlin that the wording of the Republican Plank "was taken almost verbatim" from an ad which appeared in the New York Times as well as other papers. No one really knows, but there is no evidence indicating that Fish was involved with the German campaign. He certainly was an important isolationist and opposed in American particiption in another war. He directed the National Committee to Keep America Out of Foreign Wars, the group which sponsored the ads. Of course all this came to naught when the Republicans nominated Wendel Wilkie who shared Rossevelt's dislike of the NAZis.
Fish's staunch opposition to the New Deal made him a favorite target of the President. The President during the crucial 1940 election loved to taunt him with the often repeated refrain at campaign speeches--"Martin, Barton and Fish." The audiences loved it and often joined in. (Joseph Martin and Bruce Barton were two other important House Republicans who opposed the New Deal.) Like many other notable Congressional isolationists, Fish lost his seat in the reaction after Pearl Harbor. Fish managed to hang on in 1942, but was defeated in 1944. After the War he spoke extensively round the country. He usually ended his talks with, "If there is any country worth living in, if there is any country worth fighting for, and if there is any country worth dying for, it is the United States of America."
Woody Guthrie (1912-67)
Woodrow Wilson Guthrie might be described as the baladeer of the Depression era. He was born in Okemah, Oklahoma (1912). He was the second son of Charles and Nora Belle Guthrie. His father in true Oklahoma tradition was a cowboy, land speculator, and local politician with a love of music. He taught Woody a mix of Western, Indian, and Scottish folk tunes. His Kansas-born mother was also musically inclined. Woody showed his precocious and unconventional nature as a boy. He was a keen observer of the people and world around him. As a result of his parents, he was especially unterested in music. and the traditional music played by family and frinds more than popular music. Woody unlike his close friend and fellow folk singer, Pete Seegar, experienced a series of tragdies at an early age. His older sister Clara, died in an accident. His father experienced financial ruin. His mother had to be institutionalized. Woody's family was devastated, but an important part of forming his outlook. Another formative experience was an oil boom. Wild catters discovered oil in the Okemah area when Woody was 8 years old (1920). This transformed the sleepy little town. Thousands of workers, gamblers and hustlers flowed ijto town, people of the like that the town residebts barely knew existed. The oil did not last long and Okemah suffered a severe economic shock as it returned to normal. Woody later commdnted that Okemah was left "busted, disgusted, and not to be trusted." This was the experiences which created Woody's uniquely wry outlook, the incubator for his music. It also inspired in the young Woody a desire to travel and see the rest of the country. Ans soon after he took to the open road.
Newspaper magnate William Randolph came to oppose foreign influences and anything he saw as internatonalism. He was a fervant Isolationist and used his papers to fight Presidenr Roosevelt's efforts to resist NAZI totalitarianism in Europe. Isolationism in America was a powerful movement that tied President Roosevelt's hands for years, even after the NAZIs launched the War. It was also a movement with many roots and branches. The primary strength was pacifism, humanitarianism, and nativism. There were many other elements, including racism, anti-Semitism, anti-British sentiment, Catholic anti-Communism beliefs, and even Fascist sympathies. Hearst's isolationism verged on pro-NAZI sentiment. Here Hearst's often flagarant racism must have cloded his judgement about the NAZIs. He certainly took a vey different attitude toward the Japanese aggression in China. He had been a reformer during the progressive era. The American left during the 1930s began to see him and his media empire as reactionary. His opposition to American entry in the war in Europe was interesting giving the fact that he played sych a prominant role in promoting the war against Spain. There certainly is ample evidence that Fascism itself appealed to him. Hearst allowed his papers to publish paid-for columns by both Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. Hearst denied he had Fascist sympathies, insisting that he was only an anti-Communist. He and Marion Davies made a grand continent tour and attended the Nuremberg rally (1934). He later completed a newsreel deal with Goebbels during the trip. Once Hitler launched the War (1939), the Hearst papers pursued a strong anti-interventionist editorial position. They sharply criticized President Roosevelt's efforts to aid Britain.
Rush D. Holt Sr. (1905-55)
Rush Dew Holt, Sr. was a stident Democratic voice among the mostly Republican Senate isolationists. Holt was elected U.S. Senator from West Virginia in a landslide Democratic by-election (1934). He was only 29 years old when elected and as a result of a Constitutional age requirement (30 years) could not take his seat when the new Congress convened (January 1935). He had to wait for his 30th birthday (June 1935). During the election Holt campaigned as a New Dealer. It is unclear if he only pretended to support President Roosevelt and the New Deal or had a miraculous conversion when he reached Washington. Once in the Senate, he became a vigirous critic of the New Deal and regularly voted with the Republicans. President Roosevelt was very popular in West Virginia and in particular with organized labor. The United Mines Workers became very critical of Senator Holt. Holt emerged as a staunch isolationist as Europe moved toward war. He strongly opposed President Roosevelt's efforts to aid the Allies as it might involve the United States in war. Having alienated many West Virginia Democrats, Holt was unable to gain the Democraric nomination in 1940--a rare occurance for a sitting senator. As a result, Holt became a Republican in heavily Democratic West Virginia. He ran for governor of West Virginia in 1952 and lost, even though President Eisenhower's victory in the presidential election helped other Republican candidates.
Herbert C. Hoover was the 30th President of the United States. His was a failed presidency. Hoover has to be ranked as perhaps the greatest failure as an American president. Surely there were several less than competent presidents. Hoover was, however, higly competent. HJis failure was that he was locked in by his ideological view on the proper role of the government. So often in American history, presidents have risen to the occasion in times of national crises. Hoover did not. It was not because of lack of competence or effort. It was not that he was a mean-spirited man, in fact Hoover's record of service abroad and at home spanned half a century. Hoover brought to the Presidency an unparalleled reputation for public service as an engineer, administrator, and humanitarian. And he oversaw the greatest Federal opeace time intervention in the economy than any other president. The problem was that economics was a still not fully developed discipline. And neither he or the Congress understood the cause of the economuc down turn or the impact of the policies that they were putting in place to deal with it. Lives were ruined, and people went hungry. Americans asked why a man who had saved so many European children was now allowing American children go hungary. Strident voves from the left and right were beginning to attract increasing appeal. Many dispaired and the very survival of the republic was in question when President Hoover turned over the presidency to Franklin Roosevelt.
Harry Lloyd Hopkins (1890-1946) began a caereer as a child welfare worker and became one of the most influential Amweicans of the 20th century. Hopkins came to Franklin Roosevelr's attebnion after beingbelected govrnor of New York (1928). Hr was imoressed with Hoikin's eddice admminitrarion of a state relief agency. The President brought tHoplins to Washingtonm first as
Secretary of Commerce. He gradually became the President's closest advisor, eventually moving into the White House. He bedcame close to noth the President and First Lady. He became a primcipal architect of the New Deal. After the Supreme Court struck down the National Recovery Act (NRA), Hopkins took over the Works Progress Administration (WPA)-- the principal New Deal relief effort. With no experience in foreign relatiins, Roosevelt trusted him so much that he became a major olayer in the American effort to save Western Civilisation. He became the Presidebt's chief diplomatic troubleshooter. The President sent him to Britain furing the Blitz to see if Britain could survive the NAZI ondlaught and began the creation if the Anglo-American Alliance--the most important alliance in history. Hevwould also make a diddicuklt flight to meet with Joseph Stalin. Roosevelt then gave him the critical job of managing the $50 billion Lend Lease Program.
Joseph P. Kenney was founder of an American political dynasty. He began as a taleted youth with meager resources in a country which still descrimated against Catholics. He was appointed manager of Hayden, Stone and Company (1919) There he became an expert securities trader. He made a great deal of money and got out of the market just before the Wall Street Crash (1929). He then began dabling in Hollywood films. Kennedy was active in the Democratic Party. Most Irish Catholics were Democrasts. President Roosevelt appointed him chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (1934). Kenndy's insights in securities trading assisted him draft new laws need to regulate the market and prohibir the speculative practices that had played a role in the Wall Street Crash. Roosevelt appointed Kennedy as the new United States Ambassador to Britain. I do not think that Roosevelt ever explained the appointment. It seems a rather strange one given the hostility in the Irish American community toward England. It was a prestigious appointment and Kennedy took the whole clan with him, including Joe Jr, Jack, Bobbie, and Teddy. Rifts began to develop between the President and and Kennedy. As the President was increasingly moving to confront Hitler, Kennedy's views became more isolationist. The President as the result often dealt with the British Government through channels outside the Embassy. Kennedy stayed in London during the Blitz (1940), but returned just before the election. Some isolationist expected him to speak out against the President. Roosevelt leading him to believe that a plum appointment was due, induced him to give an important campaign speech. In fact the President was disgusted by his isolationist views. After the election, Roosevelt wanted nothing more to do with him. Both his oldest sons served in the War. Joe (1915-1944) was killed on a dangerous bombing mission. Jack served corageously as a Motor Torpedo Boat (PT) captain. Kennedy's political career was ruined by his isolationist views. After the War, he focused on the political careers of his sons.
Hitler launched the long-awaited Western offensive (May 10). President Roosevelt had hoped that the Allies would be able to stop the Germans with American material support. The Deutsche Wehrmacht proved him terribly wrong. Within only 5 days the Netherlands surrendered (May 15). And the Dutch Army at the time was about the same size as the U.S. Army. General Marshal told President Roosevelt that if the Germans landed five division in America, there would be nothing that the U.S. Army could do to stop them. Belgium surrendered 2 weeks later (May 28). The Belgians who had effectively resisted the German at the start of World War I, surrendered 2 weeks later (May 28). At the time the British and French were attempotung to escape the German Panzers at Dunkirk. At first it looked like few of the men could be brought off the beach. In that enviroment, President Roosevelt picked up the phone and made certainly the most important telephone call of the War. And he made it to a very unlikely person--Willian Knudsen. Knudsen was an ardent Republican who had vocally opposed the President for 8 years and the very embodiment of the individuals who the President had called economic royalists. To the credit of both men, the put aside partisan differences and cooperated to save not only America, but the the Free World as well. The United States had the greatest industrial potential of any country. But potential had little practical meaning in the current crisis. American industry was not geared for war. The United State was not even manufacturing tanks despite what had transpired in Europe. And there was not realistic plan for converting American industry for war. Nor was there any expertise in Washington for beginning the effort. This is why Roosevelt called Knudsen. And the team of other Roosevelt-hating Republicans that Knudsen put together accomplished the most remarkable industrrial trnsformation in history. By the times Japanese bombs fell on Pearl Harbor, American arms production had equaled that of NAZI Germany--and that was just the begginning of an American industrial tidal wave which would overwealm the Axis.
Fiorello H. LaGuardia was born in Greenwich Village (New York City) (1882). His father was lapsed Italian Catholic and his mother was Italian-Jewish mother. He was elected to Congress (1916). He became the 99th mayor of New York and one of the most important American mayors if not the single most important. He served three terms durung the Depression and War years. He has been described as irascible, energetic, and charismatic, among other characterizations. He craved publicity and had a flair for public relations, once reading the comics to the kids over the radio during a newspaper strike. He was phsically unimposing, both short (only 5 feet tall) and over weight. His firt name led to his knickname, New York's 'Little Flower'. He was a Republican who could appeal to Democratic votersas was enormouly popular during the 1930s. He was a rare Republican New Dealer. He supported President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. The President repaid the favor, funding the city's social welfare program and denying patronage from LaGuardia's foes, largely meaning fellow Democrats. La Guardia undertook remake New York City as the resident's New Deal was attempting to remake the United Ztates. Laguardia took on the corrupt Tameny Hall establishment andlargely restored public faith in City Hall. He has a long list of accomplishments. He unified the transit system, began building low-cost public housing, public playgrounds, and parks, constructed airports, reorganized the police force, and reestablished merit in the city's civil service rather than patronage.
New York became a model New Deal city with a heavy emphasis on welfare and public works. He championed causes relted to immigrants and ethnic minorities. His image was that of a tough-minded reform mayor who clean out Tammeby Hall, broght in experts to addess problems, and made a sense of social responsibility a part of the City ethos.
LaGuardia's sucess was in part due to his relationship with President Roosevelt who provided substantial Federal Funds to finance City's substantial welfare system. What LaGuardia like many New Dealers failed to grasp was the need to promote business and commrce to enhance the City's tax base needed to pay for the wlfre program. Business was seen as more of a resoyrc to be mined than a vital part of the City to to be promotd and nourished. With the end of the New Deal and the War, the flow of Federal funds slowed. And the City on its own did not have the financial base to support the City's large social welfare program. The City did not benefit from War projects as much as other cities. LaGuardia decided against a fourth term as his popularity declined. And the City would eventually go bankrupt unfder the burnden of the social welfare system LaGuardia had built.
Robert Marion La Follette, Jr. (1895-1953)
Robert Marion La Follette, Jr. was the son of the venberable Robert Marion La Follette from Wisconsin. His father had been a leader in the progressive movement. He had voted against entering World War I and after the War became one of the "irreconcilables". He worked with his father and when his father died was elected to finish out his Senate term (1925). He was relected as a Republican (1928) and a Progressuve (1934 and 40). He was defeated after World War II (1946). He became known as "Yong Bob" and a champion of organized labor and supported much New Deal legislation. He received substantial naional recognition as chairman of a special Senate investigating committee, commonly called the La Follette Civil Liberties Committee (1936-40). The Committee exposed the objectionable techniques (surveillance, physical intimidation and other often illegal methods) used by corporations to prevent workers from organizing.
He broke with President Roosevelt over the 1938 naval expansion bill. (The bill which was to fund the carriers that stopped the Japanese after Pearl Harbor.) Like his father he was opposed to war and became a priminent spokesman for the isolationists. He helped found the America First Committee that attempted to prevent American aid to France and Britain under seige by the NAZIs. After the War he returned to the Republican Party. He narrowly lost the Republican primary to Joseph McCarthy (1946). He served as a foreign aid advisor during the Truman administration. He shot himself and subsequently died (1953).
Alf Landon
Former President Hoover wanted to run against President Roosevelt. He was opposed by Kansas Govenor Alf Landon. Many Republicans realized how unpopular Hoover had become. At the Republican Convention in Cleveland, Landon's campaign manager John Hamilton effectively mobilized the younger, progressive elements of the Party. Hoover simply convince the delegates that he could effectively appeal to the American electorate. Landon won the nomination on the first ballot. The Convention selected Chicago newspaper publisher Frank Knox as his vice presidential running mate. (President Roosevelt would later selecte Knox as his Secretary of Navy.) The Republican Platform supported some popular New Deal programs such as Social Security.
resident Roosevelt considered the flamboyant Louisana Democrat, Huey Long, the most dangerous person in America. He was elected govenor of Louisiana and became a fixture in state politics where he was called the Kingfish. There he became known for his radical populist policies. He served as Governor (1928-32) and U.S. senator (1932-35). He initially backed President Roosevelt and the New Deal. He soon, however, broke with the President, unhappy with the moderate character of the New Deal (June 1933). He founded the Share Our Wealth program (1934). The moto was "Every Man a King". He proposed wealth redistribution measures that during the Depression had considerable appeal. They would be financed by a net asset tax on large corporations and wealthy individuals. Roosevelt believed that Long would use his Share Our Wealth Foundation to challenge him in the 1936 election. Long was a talented and charismatic politicans. He was probably the only man in America with the political presence to take on Roosevelt. As gover he achieved considerable popularity for the social progeams he sponsored. He was willing to take forceful action against entrenced interests and was not particularly bothered about legal niceties. He achieved virtual absolute control of the state government. His enemies charged that he had dictatorial tendencies which along with his populist appeal made him so dangerous. He was assasinated at the Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge (September 8, 1935). He died two days later. He is reportedly to have said "God, don't let me die. I have so much left to do." as he died.
Gardiner Means
Henry Morgenthau, Jr.
Henry Morgenthau Jr. served as Ssecretary of the Treasury for mist of the New Deal (1934-45). He was a neigbor and friend of the Presisent, Actually e wanrd to be Secretary of Agricukture. The appointment was not popular. While in office, Morgenthau was instrumental in setting up the Works Progress Administration --the most important New Dral Agency after the Supreme Court strck down the National Recovery Act. Unlike most New Fealers, he believed in a balanced budget and opposed some of Roosevelt’s expensuve New Deal plans. Many of Roosevelt’s advisers where proponents of Keynesian economics and favored tax increases and savings programs to finance the New Deal and eventually World War II. Morgenthau turned down thus approach and preferred raising finds by selling war bonds. He arranged for the Federal Reserve to support Treasury borrowing to purchase bonds not bought by the public at an agreed rate. Morgenthau was Jewish, but avoided onvolvement in Hewush affaurs until learning of the Holocaust (1942). He became involved in the rescue of Jews during the war. He concinced the President Roosevelt to establish the War Refugee Board in 1944. He also drafted a draconian occupation plan for Germany --deindustrializing the country.
Francis Perkins
Francis Perkins is best known as the first female cabinent member. President Roosevelt appointed her Secretary of Labor (1933). This destinction does no do her justice. She is easily the most cinsequential Secretary of Lanor in American history and amony the most impactful of Presidebt Roossevelt's cabinet officers. Perkins attended the Classical High School in Worcester with interestigly a BA in chemistry and physics. Her acreer gials changes while at Mount Holyoke. She discovered discovered progressive politics and the suffrage movement. In many ways she had a similar metamorphisis as Mrs. Rosssevelt only she did not come from a wralthy family and neeed to eran a living. She was akso more practical than Mrs. Roosevelt. After college, she began teaching school. During that time she volunteered at settlement houses, including Hull House. She worked with Jane Addams. Gre she found her calling. She then pursues a NA in economics and a M.A< in politicak science. She caught the eye of New York Govenor Al Smith who wanted to cement the woman's vote. Thus Roosevely more or less ingerited when he replaced Smith as govenor of New York. And he brought her to Washigton after winning the 1932 presidential election. Perkins was no desciple of Roosevelt, although she admired him, and understood him better than most of his male colleagues. On fact the rather quiet Mrs Perkins was a world class stydent bofvthe male psyche. And oartyly because of that she got most of ther major idea enacted in kaw, including the Civilian Construction Corps, minimum wage, work-hour limitations, collective bargainning, and the Social Security Act (SSA). She oklayed a greater role on draftingbthe SSA than any other individual. The only mahor one she did not get enacted was national health care. Now all of this does not sound like anything special today, but these were major innovations in the 1930s.
Franklin married a distant cousin, a shy young woman, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, on March 17 1905. Eleanor had had a trying childhood. Her mother, a beautiful socialite who gave her little affection, died when Eleanor was eight. Her father, Theodore Roosevelt's brother, was spirited and charming. But he was unstable and alcoholic, and he died when Eleanor was ten. Orphaned, she lived with her maternal grandmother and entered her teens feeling rejected, ugly, and ill at ease in society. When Franklin, a dashing Harvard man two years her senior, paid her attention, she was flattered and receptive. Franklin was clearly serious in 1903 when he brought her to Campabello, his special space, to spend time with his mother. Elenor was the niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. They mairred in 1905. Her uncle President Theodore Roosevelt gave her away. That shy young lady was to become the greatest First Lady in American history. Without her support it is doubtful if Franklin could have even become president. Once president, it was Elenor who traveled from one end of the country, serving as her husband's eyes and ears.
The 30th president is generally considered to be the most important American statesman of the 20th century. He led America through the two most serious crises of the century, the Great Depression and World War II. He inspired confidence and despite his patrician origins came to be loved by the least favored Americans. Thus when other countries turned to totalitarianism and dictatorship, American democractic society grew stronger. His policies helped to give voice of the American worker through trade unions. The resulting prosperity of the American worker created the basis for the success of the American economy in the second half of the 20th Century. He was born into a wealthy family with an elderly father. He had a charmed childhood at his father's Hyde Park, New York estate. He was a cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt, whose niece he married in 1905.
Pete Seeger was born in New York during 1919. He was a son of Charles Seeger ( -1979) was an ethnomusicologist who taught at Yale and Julliard and later held New Deal posts. Politically he was a strong critic of World War I, both because of the abhorance of war and his great respect for Germany, in part because of the German music tradiution. Like many others after the War, little thought was iven to what would have happened had Germany won the war. Pete had a privlidged if rather unorthodox childhood, attending a private boarding school and Harvard University. His hear from an early point was with the rural folk music his parents studie. It was involvement with his parent's work that he became emersed in folk music and the five-string banjo. While at Harvard he experimented with Communism. He seems to have rejected the regimentation, but was drawn to the social message. After dropping out of Harvard in the late-1930s he worked for folklorist Alan Lomax in cataloguing and preserving traditional songs. Over the next few years, Seeger and friends formed the Almanac Singers, one of several groups he sang with, and lived in a kind of commune in Greenwich Village. He struck up a friendship with Woody Guthrie. After World War II, he helped spearhead an American folk revival. He championed folk music which he saw as both a vital national treasure and a potential catalyst for social change. He turned 'we shgll overcome' into a thme songof the Civil Rights Movement. The issues he chmpioned included the labor, civil rights, anti-war, and environmental movements. He began singing at labor rallies and became a concert hit during the folk era (1950s-60s).
Francis Townsend
Dr. Francis Townsend, ws a virtually unknown California public health officer. He found himself unemployed at the age of 67 with only $100 in the bank. Knowing that many others were in similar straits, Townsend adopted old-age relief as the way of ending the Depression. Townsend released his plan (January 1934). He promoted a $200 monthly pension for every citizen over the age of 60. The old age pensioners then would have to retire and spend their entire pension every month within the United States. Younger Americans could then take up the vacated jobs thus reducing unemployment. The old age pensions would aso help stimulte the economy. Economists saw Townsend plan as absurd. Millions of Americans found his plan appealing an refreshingly simple.
Norman Thomas (1884-1968)
Norman Thomas studied political science under Woodrow Wilson at Princeton University. Thomas did voluntary social work with the poor of New York City.
He studied theology at the Union Theological Seminary. He was ordained and became pastor of the East Harlem Presbyterian Church (1911). His Christianity became mixed with Socialism. He was particularly influenced by Christian Socialist movement that had become important in Britain. As a result he became a passionate socialist and pacifist. Thomas believed that World War I was an "immoral, senseless struggle among rival imperialisms".
Thomas founded and became the first editor of the World Tomorrow (1918). He help found the American Civil Liberties Union (1920).
Thomas was the Socialist Party's candidate for Governor of New York (1924). When Eugene Debs died, Thomas was nominated by the Socialists for president (1928, 1932 and 1936). While not an important candidate, some of his proposals were enacted durng the New Deal. Thomas became a prominent member of the America First Committee (AFC). Rhomas has been a pacifist, but after Pear Harbor supported the U.S. war effort. He did criticise aspects of the war effort, especilly the internment of Japanese Americans. He was critical of the role of major corporations in the War effort. Thomas ran as the Socialist candidate again in Party presidential candidate in 1940, 1944 and 1948. He was critical of Soviet communism, but also criticised American defense spending and Cold War policies. He spoke eloquently about poverty, racism and the Vietnam War. He died in 1968.
Rexford G. Tugwell (1891-1979)
Rex Tugwell was born in upstate New York (1891). He earned his doctorate in economics from the University of Pennsylvania (1922). He began teaching at Columbia University (1923). He was impressed with Franlin Roosevelt and played an inportant role in his 1932 presidential campaign. He served as his economic policy advisor and became a member of the President's Brain Trust which helped formulate the New Deal. President Roosevelt appointed him assistant secretary of agriculture (1933) and promoted him to undersecretary (1934). He then appointed him to direct the the Resettlement Administration (RA) (1935). Tugwell had a major hand in drafting both the Agricultural Adjustment Act and the National Industrial Recovery Act. He took an interest the RA's greenbelt communities. This was a rather utopian urban development project. It was an effort to build new self-sufficient towns. As the RA Administrator, Tugwell had authority over the greentown community of Arthurdale. Mrs. Roosevelt took a special interest Arthurdale and she and Tugwell did not always agree on policies and funding. Residents often attempted to get Mrs. Roosevelt to nterceed on their behaklf. and her frequent attempts to intercede with Tugwell on their behalf. After FDR's first term, Tugwell left Federal service. Thismeans that he did not work with bthe Farm Security Administration (FSA), although because te RA was its administrative core, he clearly left his imprint on the FSA. He subsequently chaired the New York City Planning Commission (1938-40). President Roosevelt appointed him governor of Puerto Rico (1941). After World War II, Tugwell resigned as governor and retired to resume his academic career. He published several books about the New Deal and lectured. He died (1979).
Robert F. Wagner (1877-1949)
Robert F. Wagner was an American politician and liberal reformer especially concerned with labor law. . He was elected to the New York legislture (1905). he was Chairman of the State Factory Investigating Committee (1911�1915) which focused on the tragic Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire. The Vice Chairman was fellow Tammany Hall politician, Al Smith. Their findings resultd in 38 new laws regulating labor in New York state. Their accomplishments propelled Wagner to the U.S. Senate and Smith to the Governor's chair. Wagner was elected to the U.S. Senate (1927).
Wagner worked with the future Presisent Franklin Roosevely when they were in the New York state legislature together. He became a member of Roosevelt's Brain Trust. He was very involved in labor issues, fought for legal protection and rights for workers, and was an important force in crafting the New Deal. He is best known for the National Labor Relations Act or Wagner Act (1935).
Henry Wallace
Henry Wallace was President Roosevelt's New Deal Secretary of Agriculture. Agriculture was a priority for the New Deal with a range of programs to deal with both natural disasters and economic crises. President Roosevet chose Wallace for his second vice president because of his important role in administering New Deal programs. What Vice President Wallace did not understand was the nature of the Soviet regime which is rather surprising given the barbarity of Stalin's collectivization program as well as the inefficency of the agricultural system. It is perhaps too much to expect Wallace to have a thorough understabding of the Soviet Union. But why did he not understand the Soviet agricultural system. Surely that is not too much to expect. This speaks to Soviet skill in preventing negative information about Soviet developments from reaching the West. Another factor was the unwillingness of many liberal Americans to believe the accounts that did reach the West. Concerns within the Democratic Party over Wallace's foreign policy positions, prevented his remomination for vice president. Insead the Party turned gto Senator GHarry Truman (1944). Wallace would take on Presidentv Truman and his Cold War policies in the next election (1948).
