** modern battles 16th century








Decisive Modern Battles: The 16th Century


Figure 1.--This is a modern recreation of Cortez's storming of the Teocalli, the main Aztec temple in Tenochtitlán (1521). European histories often do not give much attention to what was happening outside of the region. And in the 16th century, what was happening in the Americas was absolutely critical. There were two major conflicts during the century. The powerful Ottoman Empire was threatenting the Christian West., both Cntral Rurope and the Mediterranean Europe. And the Catholic firces attemopted to destroy the Reformtion. Key to both conflicts would be the Hapsburgs, especially Hapsburg Spain. The Reconquista left Spain with a formidable army, but Spain was not a rich country. It would be the conquest of the Americas and the gold and silver that flowed into Spain that would give the country the economic power to play a major role in both conflicts.

An unknown German monk, Martin Luther, nailed an academic paoper on a church door hoping to spark a debate within the Catholic Church (1517). What he did was to laubch the Priotestant Reformation driving another rift in the Christian world which would lead to two centuries of bloody religious wars. This was not the only major condlict in the 16th century. Another was a resurgent Islam in the form of the powerful Ottoman Empire. After seiziung Constantinoplw, the Ottomans mnoved into southern Europe and reached the gates of Vienna. Ottomanb naval poower threatened southern Europe. A key player in both conflicts, resisting the Reformtion was the Hapsburg Empire, especially Spain. Spain after the Reconquista had the strongest army in Europe, but it was not as rich as other countries, especially France. Historians generally focus on the Reformation and the conflict between th Ottoman Empire as the major historical events and largely ignore the Conquest of Mexicio and Peru as exotic footnotes. Actually the Spanish conquests in the America played a key role in European conflicts. The gold and silver flowing into Spain from the America gave it the economic power to build massive armies and naval forces. They defeated the Ottomns in the Meditrranean and with Polish help the Hosvurgs turned the Ottomans back from Vienna. The Spanish failed in their attempt to extinguish the Protestant Reformation. They defeated the Priotestants in France and much of the Low countres as well as in the Czech Lands and Hungary, but failed in northern Europe. Their most famous failure was the hugely expensive Spanish Armada.

Diu (1509)

The Arabs beginning in the 8th century dominated the Indian Ocean, especially the Arabian Sea. This meant that they controlled the lucrative commerce with the Orient. The battle was fought near the port of Diu, India. The Portuguese fought a combined fleet of the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, the Zamorin of Calicut and the Sultan of Gujarat. The Portuguese had technical maritime support from the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik). In some historical accounts, the battle is referred to as the Second Battle of Chaul. Diu was of great historical significance because it ended the Arab monopoly on the Indian Ocean. It was the beginning of European naval dominance in Asia. It also opened a new front in the centuries old struggle between Christian and Muslim powers. The new front was of emense strategic importance. Dominance of the Indian Ocean controlled trade with Asia, not only India, but the Spice Islands and China as well. Diu was the beginning of Portuguese domination of the Indian Ocean and made possible the development of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese victory was made possible by the increasing European technological advances and the failure of the Arabs to promote modern science and other secular thought unrestrained by religious orthodoxy.

Tenochtitlán (1521)

This was the final battle of Cortez and Spanish conquistadores with Aztec warriors. Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec Empire, in the 16th century was among the great cities of the world in the 16th century and probably the most beautiful and healthy. Conquistador Hernán Cortés was friven fron the city on wht becane known as La Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows) (June 30, 1520). Cortez regrouped and developed new tactics with his native allies to persue the battle with the Aztecs. Major battles were fought to get to Tenochtitlán and even more occurred after Noche Triste. Cortez's army was composed primarily of Native American allies. Graduallky Cirtez gained control of Lake Texcoco and laid seige to the Aztec capital. The final battle of Battle of Tenochtitlan was the decisive battle of the conflict between the Sopnish and Aztecs. It marked the beginning of the Spanish conquest of Mexici and ultimtely much of South America. Before encountering the Aztecs, the Spanish had only encountered smll, lrgekly primitice trives in the Caribbean. It is commonly described as one of the largest victories ever won by a small force. But this is a misunderstanding. Cortez actually had a major force when his natuve allies who hatedcthe Aztecs are counted. Horses and weaponry were importanbt to the Spanish victory, but even more important was the European diseases causing terrible plagues within the beseiged city. Cortez seized unimagined riches, something they had not found in the Caribbeann. The Conquistadores and the Catholic Church proceded to systematically destroy indugnous culture. The encomienda system launced in the Caribbean was extended to the American mainland. But the conquest of Mexico had far more importance than the future of Mexico. It woulde have a major impact on Europe.

Mohács (1526)

The Ottoman Empire occupied almost all of the Balkans (15th century). They then began to move into central Europe (early 16th century). Here they were opposed principally by Jagiellon Hungary and Hasburg Austria. This was the peak of Ottoman power under the leadership of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–66). The Ottomans represented a major threat to Christian Europe. Hungary at this time was weakened by peasants' uprisings and internal divisions among the nobility. King Louis II Jagiellon of Hungary and Bohemia (1516-26) faced serious dissent within the country's restive nobility. Süleyman took Belgrade (1521). He then attacked north seizing the opportunity to conquer the weakened Hungarian Kingdom. The Hungarian with their small army faced Süleyman's magnificent army alone. The result ws adisater for Hungary. Their small army was totally defeated at the Battle of Mohács (1526). He killed Louis II and most of the Hungarian nobels (1526). Louis' brother-in-law, Ferdinand of Austria, future Emperor and brother of the Emperor Charles V, pressed claims to both crowns for the Hapsburgs, ending an independent Hungarian crown. The victory gave Süleyman control of Hungary as well as Croatia, a province ruled by the Hungarian monarchy. Suleyman next proceeded to conquer Austria. He beseiged Vienna (1529). Vienna held out and with beginning of winter, Süleyman retreated south. This left both the Austrian Hapsburgs and Suleyman with a claim to Hungary.

Panipat (1526 and 1556)

Battles of Panipat, (1526, 1556, 1761), three military engagements, important in the history of northern India, fought at Panipat -- a level plain suitable for cavalry movements. It is located about 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi. At the first Battle of Panipat, a badly outnumbered Mughal force won a decisive victory. Babu, demonstrated his intuitive tactical sence as a brilliant field commander. He skillifully used fiield fortifications and demonstrated a command of the developing gunpowder eapons. His victory layed the foundations for the Mogul Empire. Babur and Akbar proceededto implanted Mogul rule in India. Mogul rule would last for centuries, but had begun to seriously decline by the time the British had become a serious force (18th cehntury).

Cajamarca (1532)

Cajamarca in central Peru was on the road to the Inca capital of Cuzco. It was the South American equivalent of Tenochtitlán. Pizarro and a small group of conquistadores confronted a huge army of Inca warriors in this city in the foothills of the Andes. They seized the Inca, Atahualpa himself, just as Cortez had seized the Aztec Emperor Montezuma. Pizarro's force achieved control in the narrow confines of the city while the huge Inca army was campedvaround the city.

Turkish Assault on Malta (1565)

The failure of the Turkish assault on Malta was the end of Muslim expansion in the Mediterranean world.

Lepanto (1571)

The Battle of Lepanto was one of the decisive naval battles of history (October 7, 1571). Pope Pius V organized the Holy League (Spain, Venice, Genoa, Savoy, the Knights of Malta and others) who opposed the Ottoman Empire. The two sides fought off the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras along the western coast of Greece in the Ioanian Sea. The Ottoman fleet proceeded westwards from their naval port at Lepanto where they engaged the Holy League fleet east from Messina at the southern tip of Italy. The Christian fleet decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet giving the Christians effect control of the Mediterranean and ending the Ottomon seaboirne thret to Western Europe. The battle is aloso notable as it was the last major battle fought by galleys and other rowed vessels. It was also the largest, most important naval engagement since the Battle of Actium which settled the fate of the Roman Empire (30 BC).

Nagashino (1575)

Nagashino was a fight between traditiin and midernity. Swords no longer prevailed in a gunfight.

Spanish Armada (1588)

English audacity and technology at sea laid the groundwork for the Royal Navy and command of the seas. Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins , and the other "Sea Dogs" bedelved the Spanish treasure fleet with Queen Elizabeth as a secret partner. The English then formed overseas trading companies and very modest colonization attempts were made in the Caribbean and North America by Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. The long conflict with Spain was rooted in an English hunger for Spanish treasure and a commercial and maritime rivalry, but Philip II's desire to destroy the Reformation in the Netherlands and England was also a very important factor. This struggle culminated in Philip's decession to build a Great Armada. Spain in the 16th century was the preminent international power. The Spain as a result of the Reconquista had buily a powerful military capability. Spain and Portugal at the time had colonized or claimed of the known world and huge quantities of gold and silver flowed into Spain from its American colonies. This enabled Spain to build a hugenavy to maintain its colonial dominions. Phillip was a devout Catholic and determined to destroy the Protestant Revolution in his domanins in the Netherlands and to do the same in England. The depredations of the Sea Dogs had convinced him that he must act against England. He built at great cost an "Invincible Armada" of 125 ships which would link up with the Duke of Parma's army already deployed in the Spanish Netherlands to destroy Protestantism. The Armada would then be used to ferry the Duke's army across the Channel to England where it would march on London and seize the Queen. England would then be brought back to the True Faith at the point of Spanish swords. The Armada was placed under the command of the Duke of Medina Sedonia, a nobelman of limited naval experience. The Armada sailed in late May 1588 and reached the Southwest coast of England on July 19. Limited engagements were fought by Lord Howard and Francis Drake who commanded the English fleet. The more manueverable English vessels harassed the Spanish, using superior cannonery tomdamage several vessels and actually capturing one vessel. The Armada anchored at Calais, but found that the Duke of Parma and his army was not yet there. The English set fire-ships at the Spanish (July 28). Little actual damage was done, but the Spanish scattered to avoid the preceived danger. The principal engagement occurred at Gravelines and in an 8-hour running engagement, many Spanish ships destroyed or damaged (July 29). The Commander of the Armada, the Duke of Medina Sedonia, fearing defeat decided not to invade and return to Spain. The prevailing winds forced him to take a northerly route into the North Sea and around Scotland and Ireland. The English pursued the Spanish for 3 days, but returned to port when they exhausted their ammunition. Much more damage, however, was done by storms in the North Sea andd floundered in the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Only a small number of Spanish ships managed to reach Spanish ports. The destruction of Philip's Grreat Armada was a pivotal turning point in history. Spanish naval power was ebbing despite the flow if gold and silver from the America. Britain was beginning its rise as a great naval power.

Sacheon (1592)

At about the sametime the Spanish Armada was defeated, another mighty invasion fleet was defeated. The Japanesed launched an invasion of Korea designed to eventually conquer China (1592). The Koreans were unable to risist the mighty Jpanese army. The Japanese also destroyed most of the Korean fleet. Then Admiral Yi Sun-shin with only 12 surviving ships, the famed turtle ships, delivered a a stunning defeat on the huge Japanese fleet.








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Created: 4:24 AM 10/4/2018
Last updated: 1:28 AM 8/31/2019