Figure 1.--Few political leaders have been more passionately embraced by their people. Gamal Abdel Nasser was the main proponent of pan-Arabism and socialism. He was a key player in the Free Officers Movement that overthrew King Farouk and eventually through the force of his personality and charasmatic speeches emerged as Egypt's leader. He became the most popular leader throughout the Arab world. Emerging from poverty, he was determined to transform independent Egypt into a modern prosperous state in his lifetime. Only his policies actually entrenched Egypt's backwardness and poverty. He was committed to destroying Israel, but not establishing an independent Palestinian state. This condemned Egypt to decades of masive military spending and economic policies based on state planning and socialism--the very choices that guarnteed national economic and social failure. The people both in Egypt and the wider Arab world, however, believed his promises of a dazeling prosperous future. He ruled as an old fashioned despot--rutlessly suppressing discent. Here he is being jubilently received at the Cairo train station after surviving an asasination attempt (1954). Two years later after a stunning military defeat in the Siani at the hands of the Israelis, he became even more popular because he stood up to the British and French (1956). And the Egyptian people continued to ideolize him despite economic failure and the military catastrophe of the Six Days War which he had set off (1967). Amazingly, Nasser despite economic and militarty failure remained enormously popular--there are few similar examples of this in history.
Gamal Abdel-Nasser was the main proponent of a pan-Arabic socialism. he was born in the poverty stricken Alexandrian suburb of Bacos. His parents were from the south, am area looked down on by northern Egyptians as backward. His father had achieved middle-class status for the family. Nasser entered the military college (1936) which had opened its ranks to to lower-class applicants. He graduated and entered the Egyptian army on the eve of World War II (1938). He saw with some reason king Farouk as corupt and backward. He also objected to the continuing British influence in Egypt. He played a prominent role in founding the Free Officers (El-Dhobatt El-Ahrar), an underground organization. Nasser and other Free Officers like Sadat were impressed by the NAZIs for their military prowess and fight against the British. Nasser as an army officer, fought in the first Arab-Israeli war (1948). This experience made him a fervent bliever in the Arab desire to destroy Israel. The ineffiency of the Government in waging the war with Israel, was a leading reason leading to the The Free Officers Movement led by General Mohammed Naguib seizing power (1952). From the beginning Masser was the heart of the Free Officers, but General Naguib was a respected senior officer who served as a useful figure-head. King Farouk was forced to leave the country. His son Ahmad Fouad, still a todler, was declared King. The new Government asked the British to leave the country and the last British soldier left (1954). The Free Officers deposed Ahmad Fouad and declared Egypt a Republic (1953). Mohamed Naguib was the first president. He was, however, a conservative man who saw no need for radical change. Nasser deposed him becoming the second president (1954). Nasser proceeded to launch a social revolution aiming to create a modern, state that could bring Egyptiands out of poverty and he saw socialism as the way to accomplish this. Nasser was a gifted speaker and was able to inspire the Egyptian people with a heady brand of nationalism and socialism. He was not, however, a well educated man. Just as the NAZIs had impressed him and his colleages in the 1930s, the Soviets had impressed them after the War in the 1940s. They saw socialism and economic planning as the way to creade a modern new Egypt. This was not done through any careful study of economics, but rather following an emotional rejection of the British and the West and a vague idea that Socialism was the wave of the future. This same dynamic affected much of the developing world. And a key aspect of Nasser's development plans became a massive new dam on the Nile--the Aswan High Dam.
Childhood
Nasser was born in the poverty stricken Alexandrian suburb of Bacos. His parents were from the south, am area looked down on by northern Egyptians as backward. His father had achieved middle-class status for the family.
Education
Nasser entered the military college (1936) which had opened its ranks to to lower-class applicants. He graduated and entered the Egyptian army on the eve of World War II (1938).
Free Officers Movement
He saw with some reason King Farouk as corrupt and backward. He also objected to the continuing British influence in Egypt. He played a prominent role in founding the Free Officers Movement (El-Dhobatt El-Ahrar), an underground organization. Nasser and other Free Officers like Sadat were impressed by the NAZIs for their military prowess and fight against the British.
First-Arab-Isreali War (1948-49)
Nasser as an army officer, fought in the first Arab-Israeli war (1948). This experience made him a fervent proponent of the Arab passion with desroying Israel, but not the Palistinian cause.
Overthrowing the Monarchy
The inefficiency of the Government in waging the war with Israel, was a leading reason leading to the The Free Officers Movement led by General Mohammed Naguib seizing power (1952). From the beginning, Col. Nasser was the heart of the Free Officers, but General Naguib was a respected senior officer who served as a useful figure-head. King Farouk was forced to leave the country. His son Ahmad Fouad, still a toddler, was declared King. The new Government asked the British to leave the country and the last British soldier left (1954).
Struggle for Power
The Free Officers deposed Ahmad Fouad and declared Egypt a Republic (1953). They justified their seizure of power by a committed to modernizing Egypt and restoring greatness to the Arab people. Mohamed Naguib was the first president. He was, however, a conservative man who saw no need for radical change. Nasser deposed him becoming the second president (1954).
Policies
Gamal Abdel-Nasser was the main proponent of a pan-Arabic socialism. Nasser proceeded to launch a social revolution aiming to create a modern state that could bring Egyptians out of poverty and he saw socialism as the way to accomplish this. Nasser was a gifted speaker and was able to inspire the Egyptian people with a heady brand of nationalism and socialism. He was, however, not a well educated man. Just as the NAZIs had impressed him and his colleagues in the 1930s, the Soviets had impressed them after the War in the 1940s. They saw socialism and economic planning as the way to create a modern new Egypt. This was not done through any careful study of economics, but rather following an emotional rejection of the British and the West and a vague idea that Socialism was the wave of the future. This same dynamic affected much of the developing world. Here it is difficult to be too critical. Vert well educated peope in Europe as well as politicans anxious to curry favor with voters at the time also expoused the same commitment to socialism.
Popularity
Nasser achieved phenomenalm popularity not only in Egypt, but throughout the Arab world. His emotional speeches and wide appeal throughout the Arab world. He preached a single, triumfant Aab nation. He gradually raised to great prominance throughout the Arab world. There was even a public realtions union with Syria. Nassar believed in no accomodation with Israel. Arabs ideolized him for his empassioned support of Arab Nationalism, especially his fervent oppositiin to Israel. His speeches backed the Palestinians, but he did nothing toard creatingb a Palestinian state. He wanted to expand Egypt. His Pan-Arabism and a decidedly Egyptian hue. His domestic social programs were also extremely popular, although in the end the socialist effort, as in other countries, proved a phenomnal failure. One reason he became so popular is that he attempted to assist the country's peasant majority. As his economic policies were so badly conceived, this did not happen. But Nasser was the first leader in the fountry's long history which set the goalmof raising the Egyptiam peasantry from poverty.
Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as the most influential Arab leader. He was determined to defeat Israel and in his view loberate Palestine. He accepted an offer from the Soviets for modern arms including planes and tanks on generous terms (1955). This permitted him to build very powerful forces to attack Israel from Egyptian bases in the Siani. He also allowed the Fedayeen freer reain to carry out terroist attacks. He announced without mincing words, "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the Land of Israel .... There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death." (August 31, 1955) At the time, Egyptian intelligence was heavily involved in training and equipping the Fedayeen. This involved Jordan because the Fedayeen operated primarily from bases in Jordan which had seized the West Bank in the 1948 War. Egyptian Sianai was distant from Isreali population centers. The West Bank was, however, was right next to potential Isreali targets. This was the beginning of a familiar pattern. The Fedayeen attacks were largely on Isreali civilians. They violated the 1949 armistice agreement which prohibited provision that prohibited attacks by paramilitary forces. Even so, when Israel struck back it was censured by the U.N. Security Council for its counterattacks. The situation worsened when Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran, essentially blockading Elat at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. Nasser further escalated the situation by nationalizing the Suez Canal (July 1956). Nassar left no doubt about his intentions. "I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the Arab world from destruction through Israel's intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations." (October 14) The Arab strategy was to launch a combined three prog invasion of Israel. Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, the front-line states, signed a tripartite agreement (October 25). Jordan and Syria agreed to give Nasser command of their armies. Israel decided to act before the three countries could launch a coordimated invasion.
President Nasser and the Free Officers associated with him saw a projected plan for a massive Nile River dam at Aswan was critical for the economic development of Egypt. Egypt with a soaring population faced severe economic problems. There were many benefits flowing from the project, including a substantial increase in electrical generation and increased areas to be brought under cultivation through irrigation. It would be the symbol of a New Egypt that Nasser invisioned and promised his countrymen. This was, however, a massive project that would require both foreign financing and technical assistance. It would be the largest construction project in Egypt since the construction of the Pyramids in the Old Kingdom 5.000 years earlier. The United States desired to retain good relations with Nasser and after the Soviet Arms deal saw its influence waining. The United States was still unwilling to supply arms. Thus the United States offered to assist in the construction of the coveted Aswan Dam. The United States agreed to give Egypt an unconditional loan of US$56 million, and Britain agreed to lend Egypt US$14. The British offer was conditiinal on the karger American loan. The World Bank had pledged an additional US$200 million. The World Bank loan, however, carried conditions. The Banks demanded that that the Egyptian budget be overseen by World Bank officials. Nasser saw these conditions similar to that imposed on Egypt during the British protectorate (1870s). At the same time there were growing problems in the Egyptian-American relationship. Nasser angered American policy makers by recognizing Red China (May 4, 1956). American cotton interests were oposed to the dam because it would increase Egyptian cotton production. Both the Israel lobby, and the Nationalist Chinese lobby also worked against the proposed loan. Nasser frustrated Secretary of State Dulles' policies. He concluded that Nasser's suposed neutralism was actually enabling the Soviets to penetrate the region. As a result, the United States decided to rescind its loan offer. Secretary of State Dulles met with the Egyptian Ambassador and informed him of the Administration's decesion (July 19, 1956). Subsequent U.S. statements questioned both Egypt's ability to accomplish the project or repay loans because of the government expenditures on Soviet arms. [Bickerton and Klausner] Soviet diplomats were active in Egypt and other Arab countries at the time. The arms agreement was their first success. The Soviets now offered to both finace the Aswan Dam and provide engineers with the necessary technical assistance the Egyptians needed.
Liberation Politics
Nasser devoted his politicalm career promoting Arab Nationalism and the right of Arabs and other former colonialm people to be free. He supported natinal liberation movements against all colonial ppwers or preceived colonialmpowers. The Soviet Empire in Easter Europe did not bother him. And the concept of freedom had a strange twist. He did not allow free elections or even free speech in Egypt. Critics were jailed, tortured, and even killed. Nasser help to found the Nonaligned Movement, along with Nehru (India) and Sukarno (Indonesia). He this became a kind of international power-broker in developing world. All of this did littlevto help the Egyptian economy. It did earn him massive amounts of Soviet Arms to create a force that could destroy Egupt. Much of this was financed by low-interest loans, much of which was never paid back.
Nasser armed to the teeth with Soviet equioment set the Six Days War in motion. Nassar by 1967 was prepared to destroy the Jewish nation militarily. He and other Egyptian officers considered Egypt's defeat in the First Arab-Israeli-War (1948-49) and the Suez War (1956) was shameful and were determined to destroy Israel. Arab leaders have a way of declaring victory after battlefield defeats, even disasterous defeats. Nasser was extremely accomplished at this. He claimed that the 1956 Suez War was a victory because he had forced Israel, Britain and France to withdraw. But the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) and the movement of Isreli shipping through the Straits of Tiran were a reminder that Egypt had not won the War. And there were intra-Arab politics that pressed on Nasser. He had come to power with a process to make Egypt a modern properous state. Here he made little progress in addressing the deep seated problem of poverty. He also experienced a failed war in Yemen. And he was embarassed by taunts from Fatah and the Muslim Brotherhood to move against Israel. The result was the Six Days War--one of the most rapid and decisive defeats in military history. His only excuse was to blame the United States. Unwilling to admit tat Egypt could be defeated by Israel, he claimed that America had intervened. He resigned shortly after the War. Thousands of devoted supporters surged into the streets of Cairo urging him to reconsider.
Final Years
Nasser spent his final 3 years in power rebuilding the Egyptian army. Here the Soviets continued to support him with more massive arms shipments and military advisers. His death sent politival shock waves throughout the Arab world (1970). His devored followers were still supported him despite economic amd military failure. Millions of mourners in Cairo followed his funeral procession through the streets.
Impact
Nassar is surely the most imoactful Arab leadersince Saladin. And the along with Mohammed Ali, the only Egyptian leader of any importance since Cleopatra. He was Egyot's first indigenous ruler sine the pharaoahs. Now many decades after his death, he continues to be a giant in the Arab conciouness. On the occassion the 50th anniversary of Nassar's death, a Lebanese newspaoer editiarial proclaimed that 'Nassar is the future'. And described hima s imprtal. The author insisted that he continues to be, 'a necsesity to face current challenges even as his ideas abd choices provide a solid bridge to deal with the future.' Now many Arabs throughout the Arab world would agree with that assessment. Which is stunning given that he commanded a nmassive militry alliance hugely superior to tint Israel yer was disasyrtously defeated -- the most lopsided failure in all of Arab history. Yet he is still hinored theroughout the Arab world. Now there is not doubt that Nassar was a charismatic figure. He was an effective speaker amppliphied by the fact thatbhe fed the Arab population what they wanted to hear. But much of what became known as Nassarism came out of Nassar's infatuation with totalitarianism (the NAZIs and Soviets) and belief in socialism. Nasser and the ither yioung offucers were prepared to welcome Rommel ans the Afrika Koprps (1942). When bthatbdid not transpire. The Soviers presented another totalitarian threat to the West. These of course were all failed political and economic systems. What Nasser was rejecting was modernity--democracy and capitalism. The reason e was rejecting it was that Britain was the imperial power that had controlled Egypt to an extent (since the 1880s). Britain did not turn Egypt unto a colony, but rather a protecorate in which it exercized authority, but did not impoose an overturning of traditiional society. But Nassar rejected Britain and modrnity in favor of totalitarianism and socialism, convinvced that this would rapidly create a moderm, prosperous society. It is thus not surprising that Egypt since independence has largely failed. As one author explains, Nassar brought 'disaster to Egyot in the form of political, economic, and cultural decline.' [Pipes, p. B1.] Just as Stalin murdered the Soviet Union's best farmers. Nasser expelled Egypt's best businessmean -- Levantines (Italuans, Greeks, and Lebanese) and Jews who powered the economy. And a hefty dose of anti-semitism whauchas le Egypot and the Arab world to expend enormaous amounts of blood and treasure into a futlile crusade to destroy Jews and Israel. Tt was Nasser more than any one that tranformed the Palestinian refugee problem into Palestinian irrendentism which has dominated the Arab mind for decades. But the imoact has been especially secere on Egypt. The country at the end of World War II was alredy independent and by far the most important Arab country in terms of population, economy, and cultural import. Yet today while many countries have made enormouis econiomic progress, Egypt can neither feed itself or produce products that can be sold in world markets.
Sources
Bickerton, Ian J.and Carla L. Klausner. A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 4th edition.
Pipes, Daniel. "Nasser died 50 years ago: He lives on in Egypt," >i>The Washijgton Times (September 28, 2020).
