Figure 1.--The fight for independence and the government of the independent republic werecled bt secularists, some of them radical left-wing orientation. Algerian society, especially outside the cities was much more traditional with tribal andcrelgious leaders of considerable importance. The press caption here read, 'Small boy shoulders big gun: With a musket almost as big as he is, an Algerian boy marches with a local chieftan's honor guard in Algiers recently during the Conference of African Foreign Ministers." The photograph appeared Seotember 11, 1968. At the time, political leaders throughout Africa were still convinced that socialist policies would quickly usher in a future of prosperity and abundance.

A Provisional Executive was installed at “Rocher Noir” (Boumèrdes) (April 1962). The Provisional Government administere a referendum on self-determination (July 1, 1962). The Provisional Government announced that 99.7 percent voted in favor of independence. That is a very high vote, but most of the French and Algerians associated with the French had left Aklgeria or were in the process of leaving. The Provisional Government immediately proclaimed the country's independence (July 5, 1962). The country held an election for the first constituent assembly (September 20). The People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria was proclaimed (September 25). The new Constitution was released (September 29). Algeria was admitted to the United Nations (October 8). A referendum approved the new constitution (May 8, 1963). Independence leader Ahmed Ben Bella was elected Algeria's first president (September 15, 1963). The FLN Third Congress adopted the Charter of Algiers (April 1964). The new Government created the Council of the Revolution which was presided over by Houari Boumediene (June 19, 1965). The FLN Government like many other newly independent governments embraced socialism. An early step was the nationalization of mines (May 7, 1966). The FLN for a time developed close relations with the Soviets. The FLN adopted a range of Soviet inspired economic policies which proved to be economic disasters. The bright hope of independence gradually was lost in wide-spread poverty and economic decline. The first local elections were conducted (February 5, 1967). This included APC (boroughs) and APW (Departments). The French military completed their exit from Algeria. The French left their bases of Reggane and Bechar (May 1967). The French departed from their big bases at Mers El-kebir near Oran (February 1, 1968). This was where the British Royal Navy attacked the French fleet during World War II. The Algerian Government nationalized the hydrocarbon industry (February 24 1971). The assumption was that it would increase state revenue, The result was a moribund industry that opperated ineficently. Socialism would have fundmentlly changed Algeria if it worked. And in Algeria they had oil and gas to finance development. Butsicialism and in oter countries destroys rather than creates wealth. The failure would eventully cue lgerians ti return to Islam and traditional vlues.

Provisional Government and Referendum (1962)

A Provisional Executive was installed at “Rocher Noir” (Boumèrdes) (April 1962). The Provisional Government administere a referendum on self-determination (July 1, 1962). The Provisional Government announced that 99.7 percent voted in favor of independence. That is a very high vote, but most of the French and Algerians associated with the French had left Algeria or were in the process of leaving. The accuracy of the vite is still questionable, although there is little doubt that there was a substantial majority vote.

Independence (1962)

The Provisional Government immediately proclaimed the country's independence (July 5, 1962). hiscbegan the FLN years. The country held an election for the first constituent assembly (September 20). The People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria was proclaimed (September 25). The new Constitution was released (September 29). Algeria was admitted to the United Nations (October 8). A referendum approved the new constitution (May 8, 1963). The FLN Government was a ruling triumvirate, Ahmed ben Bella (who has spent the previous 6 years in a French prison) as Premier, Houari Boumedienne as Minister of Defence, and Muhammad Khidr as head of the party. Independence leader Ahmed Ben Bella was elected Algeria's first president (September 15, 1963). The FLN Third Congress adopted the Charter of Algiers (April 1964).

Exodus (1962-64)

A massive exodus from Algeria began once it became increasingly clear that Algeria was going to sever its more than a century long relationship with France and become an independent nation. [Shepard, pp. 213–240] There were three gtoups involved. The largest group were the Pieds-Noirs, the French ethnic population composed of families that began settling in Algeria when France colonized Algeria (1840s). The other group was the harkis, Muslimethnic Aherians who fought on the French side in the Algerian Independence War. The third groups were the Jews, many but not all descended from the Sephardic Jews expelled by Spain in the 15th century. It did not become widely understood that Algeria was going to become independent until 1961. The morale of Pieds-Noirs quickly collapsed. A combination of changing French policy and the violence undeminded the morale of the Pieds-Noirs. Perhaps even more unsetting was the changing attitude of the French people. Many began to see the Pieds-Noirs as guilty of "terrorism, torture, colonial racism, and ongoing violence in general". [Shepard, pp. 213–240] For many it became clear that there was not future for them in Algeria. Algerians voted overwealmingly for independence in a referendum (July 1). France followed by recognizing Algerian independemce (July 3). Algerian mobs celebrating independence began attacking French people in Oran (July 5-7). Some 0.8 milliomn Pieds-Noirs fled Algeria (1962-64). [Meredith, p. 74.] Many had to leave with only what they could cram into a suitcase. President de Gaulle refused to allow the French Navy to help transport French citizens back to France. [Kacowicz and Lutomski, pp. 30–70.] In only a few months, cities like Oran, Bône, and Sidi Bel Abbès were half-empty (September 1962). Civic life collapsed (administration, police, schools, and justice). Commercial activities also ceased. Many Pieds-Noirs were tgiven a choice, 'la valise ou le cercueil' (the suitcase or the coffin). [Stora, pp. 12, 77.] Some 0.2 million Pieds-Noirs remained in Algeria, often because of property they owned. But most gradually changed their mind and reyurned to France. Just a few thousand were left in Algeria by 1980. [Grenville, pp. 520–30.] The plight of the Pieds-Noirs pailed in comparison to the fate of Muslim harkis who had fought with the French. There were some 250,000 harkis. Some 90,000 managed to get to safty in France. Thousands who failed to escape were murdered were lynched by mobs. The FLN arrested others and shot them as traitors. The French Governmnt made no effort to help the harkis, although sympthetic French officers against orders brought some back to France in military transports. [Horne, pp. 533 and 537.] Most Jews who had French citzenship departed with the French in 1962. The French Government claimed as the mass exodus began that it had not forseen that such a huge number of people, thinkinh that perhaps 0.3 million would come to France and tht many of those would return. In fact officials probably understood very well what would happen. What ever the truth n this. The preparations to assist the Pieds-Noirs refugees were totally inadequte. [Shepard, pp. 213–240]

Power Struggle (1963)

A power struggle developed within the FLN. This surfaced with Khidr's resignation (April 1963). He then fled abroad with the party's funds. He was later assassinated in Madrid) Next Houari Boumedienne who controlled the Army remove Ben Bella from power in what amonted to a bloodless coup (1965). Boumedienne placed Ben Bella under house arrest where he remained for 13 years. This left Boumedienne in control of the country. The new Government created the Council of the Revolution which was presided over by Boumediene (June 19, 1965). Boumedienne and the Army establish a military one-party regime. Eelections for the National Assembly will not be held until 1977, aome 15 years after independence.

Arab Socialism

The official FLN state policy was socialist. The FLN Government like many other newly independent governments embraced socialism. Algeria was one of several Arab countries which adhered to the phenomenon that became known as Aeab Sicialism. The 1960s-70s was the high-point of Arab Socialism. Many Arab leaders were impressed with the Soviet Union and its apparent achievements. A factor was also Soviet support in their independence war. An early step was the nationalization of mines (May 7, 1966). The FLN for a time developed close relations with the Soviet Union. The FLN adopted a range of Soviet inspired economic policies. Ben Bella was the most radical socialist within the FLN leadership. And the most radical socilist policies were intriduced during his time in power. A major step was collectiviztion. Apparentky Ben Bella, like Castro, believed that Soviet collectivization had been a success. It shows how effective is the appeal of socilism regardless of the facts. This was a fairly easy step as the French were departing. Rather than distributing the land to the peasantry, Ben Bella set up state farms manged by the former workers. Along with economic measures, the FLN's state socilism include modrnization measures such as the roleof women in society. This offened traditional Islamic elements in society. If socialism had worked, a modern outlook might have worked. But the failure of socialsm in Algeria meant a rection to the modernizing efforts of the FLN. State farms proved no more sucessful in Algeria than in the Soviet Union. The Soviets could disguise the economics of socialism bcause they maintained an autarkic economy. The FLN's socialist economy were undesguised economic disasters. The bright hope of independence gradually was lost in wide-spread poverty and economic decline. The Algerian Government nationalized the hydrocarbon industry (February 24 1971). The assumption was that it would increase state revenue, The result was a moribund industry that opperated ineficently. Even so, the oil and gas industry would become the mainstay of the economy.

Local Elections (1967)

The first local elections were conducted (February 5, 1967). This included APC (boroughs) and APW (Departments).

French Withdrawl

The French military completed their exit from Algeria. The French left their bases of Reggane and Bechar (May 1967). The French departed from their big bases at Mers El-kebir near Oran (February 1, 1968). This was where the British Royal Navy attacked the Fench fleet during World War II.

Economic Reforms (1970s)

Boumedienne also pushes through a programme of land reform, redistributing large Algerian estates as small holdings for peasants. Boumedienne maintins tight control over the oil and gas industry located in the south which proves to be the only industry generting importnt export revenue.

Constitutional Changes (1976)

The Government continued to tinker with the Constitution. Referendums were held on the National Charter (June 27, 1976) and Scond Constitution (November 19, 1976).

Leadership (1970s)

The leadership of Algeria chnged in the 1970s. Houari Boumediene won the presidential electionn (December 10, 1976), but died only 2-years later (December 27, 1978). The FLN nominated an army colonel, Chadli Ben Jedid, to replace Boumediene. He was elected in a controlled election (February 7, 1979). Bendjedid begins to reduce the state monopolies put in place diring the Ben Bella era. He begins to break up the 4,000 highly inefficent state farms into some 4,000 smaller farm units. Despite rising opposition, Ben Jedid was reelected (January 13, 1983).

Protests (1988)

Protests broke out in several cities (October 5, 1988). Ben Jedid and the FLN were shocked by widespread rioting that suddenly broke out. Without elections and a free press, the FLN was insulte from public opinion and social movements. The era of Arab Socialism was long past. Socialism had no appeal to the new genertion of Algerians who were increasingly drawn to Islamic messages. By now it it was cler that not only did socilism not work, but it had a usavory association with atheism.

Reform Efforts (1988-89)

Ben Jjedid in response to the protesrs introduced a new constitution in which for the first time in the FLN, no mention was made of socialism. A referendum approved revisions of the Constitution (November 3, 1988). Another referendum approved the country's four constitution (February 23, 1989). Chadli Ben Jedid was reelected president for the third time in another sham election (December 22, 1988) Ben Jedid made a major concesion, allowing other political parties to operate. The next elections for the National Assembly scheuled for 1991 would produce a very unpleasant shock to the FLN.

Civil War (1992)

The Government declared a state of seige (June 5, 1991). Six months later the Government disolves the People’s National Assembly (parliament) (January 04, 1992). President Chadli Ben Djedid resigned (January 12 1992). The Government created the Higher State Council (Haut Conseil de l’Etat -- HCE) under the presidency of Mohamed Boudiaf (January 14, 1992). The Government declared a state of emergency (February 2, 1992) and then a National Consultative Council (February 4). Rebels assainated the President of the Higher State Council, Mohamed Boudiaf (June 29). Ali Kafi became President of the Higher state Council (July 2). The mandate of the Higher State Council ends (January 30, 1994). Liamine Zeroual is designated Head of State. The creation of the National Council of Transition (Conseil National de Transition) (May 18, 1994).

Sources

Grenville, J.A.S. A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century (Routledge: 2005).

Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962 (The Viking Press: 1977).

Kacowicz, Arie Marcelo and Pawel Lutomski. Population Resettlement in International Conflicts: A Comparative Study (Lexingt on Books: 2007).

Meredith, Martin. The Fate of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence (Public Affairs).

Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War And the Remaking of France (Cornell University Press: 2006).

Stora, Benjamin Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History (Cornell University Press: 2005).

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Created: 11:48 AM 12/23/2011
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