Figure 1.--This press photo shows Pieds-Noirs leaving Algeria. The exodus began in 1961. We think it was taken at the airport in Algiers with their liggage. All we know for sure that it was taken February 13, 1964. the press caption is unavailable.

A massive exodus from Algeria began once it became increasingly clear that Algeria was going to sever its more than a century long relationship with France and become an independent nation. [Shepard, pp. 213–240] There were three gtoups involved. The largest group were the Pieds-Noirs, the French ethnic population composed of families that began settling in Algeria when France colonized Algeria (1840s). The other group was the harkis, Muslimethnic Aherians who fought on the French side in the Algerian Independence War. The third groups were the Jews, many but not all descended from the Sephardic Jews expelled by Spain in the 15th century. It did not become widely understood that Algeria was going to become independent until 1961. The morale of Pieds-Noirs quickly collapsed. A combination of changing French policy and the violence undeminded the morale of the Pieds-Noirs. Perhaps even more unsetting was the changing attitude of the French people. Many began to see the Pieds-Noirs as guilty of "terrorism, torture, colonial racism, and ongoing violence in general". [Shepard, pp. 213–240] For many it became clear that there was not future for them in Algeria. Algerians voted overwealmingly for independence in a referendum (July 1). France followed by recognizing Algerian independemce (July 3). Algerian mobs celebrating independence began attacking French people in Oran (July 5-7). Some 0.8 milliomn Pieds-Noirs fled Algeria (1962-64). [Meredith, p. 74.] Many had to leave with only what they could cram into a suitcase. President de Gaulle refused to allow the French Navy to help transport French citizens back to France. [Kacowicz and Lutomski, pp. 30–70.] In only a few months, cities like Oran, Bône, and Sidi Bel Abbès were half-empty (September 1962). Civic life collapsed (administration, police, schools, and justice). Commercial activities also ceased. Many Pieds-Noirs were tgiven a choice, 'la valise ou le cercueil' (the suitcase or the coffin). [Stora, pp. 12, 77.] Some 0.2 million Pieds-Noirs remained in Algeria, often because of property they owned. But most gradually changed their mind and reyurned to France. Just a few thousand were left in Algeria by 1980. [Grenville, pp. 520–30.] The plight of the Pieds-Noirs pailed in comparison to the fate of Muslim harkis who had fought with the French. There were some 250,000 harkis. Some 90,000 managed to get to safty in France. Thousands who failed to escape were murdered were lynched by mobs. The FLN arrested others and shot them as traitors. The French Governmnt made no effort to help the harkis, although sympthetic French officers against orders brought some back to France in military transports. [Horne, pp. 533 and 537.] Most Jews who had French citzenship departed with the French in 1962. The French Government claimed as the mass exodus began that it had not forseen that such a huge number of people, thinkinh that perhaps 0.3 million would come to France and tht many of those would return. In fact officials probably understood very well what would happen. What ever the truth is, the preparations to assist the Pieds-Noirs refugees were totally inadequte. [Shepard, pp. 213–240]

Independence

A massive exodus from Algeria began once it became increasingly clear that Algeria was going to sever its more than a century long relationship with France and become an independent nation. [Shepard, pp. 213–240]

Refugee Groups

There were three gtoups involved. The largest group were the Pieds-Noirs, the French ethnic population composed of families that began settling in Algeria when France colonized Algeria (1840s). The other group was the harkis, Muslimethnic Aherians who fought on the French side in the Algerian Independence War. The third groups were the Jews, many but not all descended from the Sephardic Jews expelled by Spain in the 15th century.

Pieds-Noirs

It did not become widely understood that Algeria was going to become independent until 1961. The morale of Pieds-Noirs quickly collapsed. A combination of changing French policy and the violence undeminded the morale of the Pieds-Noirs. Perhaps even more unsetting was the changing attitude of the French people. Many began to see the Pieds-Noirs as guilty of "terrorism, torture, colonial racism, and ongoing violence in general". [Shepard, pp. 213–240] For many it became clear that there was not future for them in Algeria. Algerians voted overwealmingly for independence in a referendum (July 1). France followed by recognizing Algerian independemce (July 3). Algerian mobs celebrating independence began attacking French people in Oran (July 5-7). Some 0.8 milliomn Pieds-Noirs fled Algeria (1962-64). [Meredith, p. 74.] Many had to leave with only what they could cram into a suitcase. President de Gaulle refused to allow the French Navy to help transport French citizens back to France. [Kacowicz and Lutomski, pp. 30–70.] In only a few months, cities like Oran, Bône, and Sidi Bel Abbès were half-empty (September 1962). Civic life collapsed (administration, police, schools, and justice). Commercial activities also ceased. Many Pieds-Noirs were tgiven a choice, 'la valise ou le cercueil' (the suitcase or the coffin). [Stora, pp. 12, 77.] Some 0.2 million Pieds-Noirs remained in Algeria, often because of property they owned. But most gradually changed their mind and reyurned to France. Just a few thousand were left in Algeria by 1980. [Grenville, pp. 520–30.]

Harkis

The Algerian Muslims who had worked for the French, including many in the security servies, were another matter. The French proceeded to disarm them. They were not offered repatriation to France. France did secure a guarantee from th GPRA for their safety. The GPRA pledged that no actions would be taken against them. The Harkis (Muslim auxilery soldiers) with the French Army, were regarded as traitors by the FLN. The guarantees offered by the GPRA proved meaningless. The plight of the Pieds-Noirs pailed in comparison to the fate of Muslim Harkis who had fought with the French. There were some 250,000 Harkis. After they were disarmed some 50,000-150,000 Harkis as well as their families were slaughtered by the FLN or vengeful Muslim mobs. There were many abductions in which the Harkis soldiers were tortured before being killed. This slaughter began even before the French military left. Some 90,000 managed to get to safty in France. Thousands who failed to escape were murdered were lynched by mobs. The FLN arrested others and shot them as traitors. The French Governmnt made no effort to help the Harkis, although sympthetic French officers against orders brought some back to France in military transports. [Horne, pp. 533 and 537.] Their descendents today are a substantial part of the Algerian-French population. It is notable how poorly they have assimilated into the French population. Many young people are very critical of the French and are being radicalized by Islamists. Most Jews in algeria had French citiuzenship and left with the Pieds-Noirs, most in 1962.

Jews

The French began their intervention in Algeria when the Dey's demanded that the French government pay a substantial wheat debt to two Jewish merchants (Bacri and Busnach). The French occupied Algeria (1830). French colonial authorities transformed the Ottoman millet system. The French authorities set up different regimes for French and Algerians. French citizens could vote, were governed by the French legal system, and had military obligations. France at the time was moving toward the emancipation of Jews. And by the 1840s Jewish courts (beth din) were closed and judicial hearings involving Jews were being held in the French courts. I am not sure why this occurred. French authorities appointed Jews from metropolitan France to serve as chief rabbis for the various regions of Algeria (1845). The new chief rabbis were given the task of incorporating indigenous Algerian Jews into French society. The French Goverrment set up a liberal system through which Jews and Muslims could become full French citizens (1865). Few took advantage of this because it required renouncing some traditional values and thus was considered by many as apostasy. The French Government with the décrets Crémieux granted voting rights to Algerian Jews (1870). From this point they are generally treated as one element of the Pied-Noirs (French settlers). The Algerian Jews, however, were not French settlers and most did not even speak French. French Jews looked on them as backward and wanted them to give up their Arab traditions and become French. This in fact occurred and by the turn of the 20th century, Algerian Jews mostly spoke French rather than Arabic or Ladino. The Algerian Jews also widely adopted French culture. At the time of World War II, there were about 120,000 Jews in Algeria. This represented about 2 percent of the Algerian population. The Jewish population was largely concentrated in Algeria's principal cities (Algiers, Constantine, and Oran). The population of these cities was about 7 percent Jewish. This also tended to be the situation in many smaller cities like Ghardaia and Setif. One small town (Messad) had a Jewish majority. When Algeria attained independence in 1962, legislation granted Algerian citizenship only to those residents whose father or paternal grandfather were Muslims. Moreover, the Supreme Court of Justice of Algeria declared that the Jews were no longer under the protection of the Law. Most of Algeria's 140,000 Jews left the country for France together with the Pied-Noirs; only about 10,000 stayed, a number that would rapidly decrease. The few Jews who remained after the Revolution lived mainly in Algiers, with some families in Blida, Constantine, and Oran.

Resettlement Efforts

The French Government claimed as the mass exodus began that it had not forseen that such a huge number of people, thinking that perhaps 0.3 million would come to France and that many of those would return. In fact officials probably understood very well what would happen. Whatever the truth is, the preparations to assist the Pieds-Noirs refugees were totally inadequte. [Shepard, pp. 213–240]

Sources

Grenville, J.A.S. A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century (Routledge: 2005).

Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962 (The Viking Press: 1977).

Kacowicz, Arie Marcelo and Pawel Lutomski. Population Resettlement in International Conflicts: A Comparative Study (Lexingt on Books: 2007).

Meredith, Martin. The Fate of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence (Public Affairs).

Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War And the Remaking of France (Cornell University Press: 2006).

Stora, Benjamin Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History (Cornell University Press: 2005).

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Created: 12:54 PM 12/2/2016
Last updated: 12:55 PM 12/2/2016