Figure 1.-- Here we have an unidentified Nicarguam refugee boy in Miami. His family fled the Sandinista take over in Nivaragua (1979).

Spanish Conquistador Gíl González de Ávila defeated the Native American forces Ferná Cacíque Nicaro (1522). Fernández de Córdoba founded León and Grenada (1524). These two cities developed as competing centers. León became both a political and cultural center. Grenada developed as a stronghold of the aristocracy. Competition between the two centers became a destabiling force. Nicaragua achieved independence from Spain (1821). Mexico's short term Emperor, Iturbide, folded in Central America to his Mexican Empire. When this disolved, Nicaragua joined the Central American Federation (1825-38). With the break up of the Federation, Nicaragia became independent (1838). After Nicaragua became independent, to reduce domestic tensions, Managua was founded as a compromise capital (1855). Problems developed with Britain over the Mosquito (Caribbean) Coast and Bay Islands. Nicaragua was one of the countries targeted by American Filibuster William Walker. After the Civil War in the United States, problems developed over both a possible canal to transit the Istmus and financial matters. Nicaragua's most important leader during this period was José Santos Zelaya (1894-1909). Relations with the United States deteriorated. The United States intervened in Nicaragua, stationing Marines to guarantee debt repayment (1912-25 and 1926-1933). Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino orgabized a guerrila war to resist the Marines. The Marines were withdrawn by President Roosevelt as part of his Good Neighbor Policy. After the Marines withdrew, the Somoza family seized power and ran the country as a kind of family fiefdom. Anastasio Somosa emerged as the country's strong-man ruler (1936-56). When he was assasinated, he was replaced by his son Luis (1956-63). Another son, Anastasio, was elected president (1967). A Cuban supported insurgency was launched by the Sandinistas to finally overthrow the Samosas. For some, the Sandinistas became revolutinary heros. When they suceeded they ignored the economic failure of Castroand Communism and rplicated Cuban policies, both represive politics and socialist economics. The result was all too predictable economic failure. An American suported revolution also followed--the Contras. Sndinista leader Daniel Ortega believing his own propaganda and departing from the Castro play book allowed a reltively free election and lost. The continuing political support of the Sandinists comtinues in Nicaragua and makes economic development impossible. The country does received economic suport from Hugo Chavez inVenezuela to stay afloat.

Native Americans

Evidence of human presence has been found at Monkey Point, south of Bluefields, on the Cariibean coast (est. 6,000 BC). Marine life was an important part of the diet as there is clam shell middens. This was once one thought to be of the earliest human encampments and evidence of human progress south from the Bearing Sea crossing. Since the discovery of much ealier habitation at Monte Verde in Chile, the whole histry of Native American migratins is in a state of flux and how Monkey Point fits into it is largely unknown. Nor is it clear why the earliest site has been fojnd along the Caribbean rather than the Pacific coast. And a family left their footprints in volcanic mud at what is now Managua (est. 4,000 BC). Historians believe that the area of what is now Nicaragua was intensively settled (1,500 BC). Little is know about this era. A rare peak into Native American pre-Colombian history is a treaty between the Nicarao capital of Jinotepe and its rival Chorotegan neighbor, Diriamba. Nicaraguans celebrate it together as the Toro Guaco. Nicaragua was on the perifery of the Maya area, but well within the Maya cultural area. The neolitlic (agricultural revolution) appearing first in Mesoameriac reached the area (about 450 BC). the population grew domesticated crops from futher north in Mesoamerica, including corn, yucca, beans and other crops. Trading royes extending south to the northern Andes and north to the modern United States (by 300 AD). This brought new technologies such as matates (corn-grinding stones) and sharp obsidian tools for both weapons and carving soft volcanic basalt. Archeologists have found petroglyphs and statues (about 800 AD). Many different designs have been found, including an Aztec calendar and representations of the Quetzalcóatl diety show casing northern influenses. With the collapse of the ??? empire, lgend reports a tribe of Náhuatl-speaking refugees reached Nicaragua seeking a prophesied lake island settled Isla de Ometepe (early- 1000s). Some archaeologists question this legend. Colonies of what seem to be of Mayan origin had already settled the central highlands of Matagalpa, Chontales and Juigalpa. People of unknown origins were living along the Caribbean coast, including the Mayangna and Miskito peoples. It was the Midkito people who had an astounding encounter (1502). They sighted of whom came across the most curious thing at the mouth of the Río Coco (1502). They sighted a storm-damaged fleet of Spanish galleons led by Christopher Columbus. It was the Admiral's last voyage and his crew was close to mutiny. The Miskitos assisted the Spanish. Nicaragua comes from the name of the Native American chief of the principal tribe that the Spanish Conquistadores encountred.

Spanish Conquest

Spanish Conquistadores under the command of Gil González de Ávila, shortly after the fall of the Aztec Empire to the north, landed along the Pacific Coast (1522). Other Conquistadores followed other routes south into Nicragaua. Gonzalez led his men north north from the Gulf of Nicoya. They met Cacique Nicarao on the inland shores of Lago de Nicaragua. The spot is marked by the Cruz de España. Nicaro plyed the strangers with questions about science, technology and history. González gave Nicarao an ultimatum: to convert to Christianity or suffer the consequences. This was a matter of Spanish law. Nicarao ordered his people to comply, but the Spanish proceeded to enslave Nicaro's people. González made Cacique Diriangén the same alternative. Diriangén refused to convert. González conquered them with much blood letting. Despite their defeat, other tribes resisted. Gonzalez conquered the four main Pacific tribes (Chorotega, Nicarao, Maribios and Chontal). Within the space of a generation, a population of some 700,000 Native Americans was reduced to only 35,000 people. Mitreatment was a factor, but the main cause was the lack of resistance to European diseases.

Spanish Colonial Rule (1522-1821)

Francisco Fernández de Córdoba another Conquistador that invaded what is now Nicaragua founded León and Grenada (1524). Spanish settlment was long the Pacific coast and in the Central Highlands. Following the basic pattern of Spanish conquest, the land was parceled out to the Conquistadores. The area of greatest interest was the western area close to the Pcific coast. There the Spanish found a wide, fertile valley with huge, freshwater lakes, ideal for agriculture. The valley was fringed by volcanoes. These two cities developed as competing centers. León became both a political and cultural center. Grenada developed as a stronghold of the aristocracy. Competition between the two centers became a destabiling force. The Spanish Crown founded the the Viceroyalty of New Spain (1538). This encompassing all of Mexico and Central America, except Panama. The southern part of New Spain, incluing Nicaragua, was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala (1570). The area of modern Nicaragua was divided into administrative 'parties' with León as the capital. Momotombo Volcano erupted, destroying nearby Léon (1610). León was moved a little to the northwest, but remained the royal capital. The first European settlement on the Caribbean coast was made by the British Providence Company deep in the Spanish Main (1633). At the time there was no overland connection with the Caribbean cost. Despite the impressive name the Providence Company was a group of pirates, targeting Spanish vessels in the Caribbean. At the time, Spanish vessels were transporting vast amounts of silver mined in Bolivia back to Spain through the Caribbean. The pirates forged alliances with the disgruntled indigenous groups, the pirates were able to secure their hold on the Caribbean coast. The colonial history of Nicaragua was what might be called static after the conquest and parceling out of the land to the conquistadores. There were several minor civil wars and rebellions, but were quickly suppressed by Royal forces. The coastal region was was targeted by British, Dutch, French and British pirates. The city of Granada was sacked twice (1658 and 1660).

Independence Struggle

Nicaragua achieved independence from Spain (1821). The Napoleonic Wars weakened the royalists throuhout the Spanish empire. And after Napoleon's defeat, the Brotish Fleet made it difficult to reimpose Spanish rule. The important battles were fought in South America and Mexico, but Central America was also liberated. Agustín de Iturbide (1783-1824) was a royalist commandr who switched sides and became Mexico's first caudillo and leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence movement. He declared himself Emperor Agustín I. Iturbide attempted to include Central America into his short term Mexican Empire.

Central Americn Federation (1825-38)

When Iturbide's Mexican Empire disolved, Nicaragua joined the Central American Federation (1825-38).

Early Independence (1838-1909)

With the break up of the Federation, Nicaragia finally became independent (1838). Nicaraguan politics as an independent nation became essentially a competition for power between the Liberals, who were dominated the city of León, and the Conservatives, dominating Granada. This led to essentially a civil war. Conservative Granada had long played rival to the colonial capital, Liberal León. With independence, Léon's privlidged position was suddenly threatened. A compromise, designating the small fishing village of Managua as a new national capital only interrupted hostilities (1852). Hostilities commenced (1854). León hired American filibusterer William Walker to help. They apparently did not perceive that the mercenary Walker had his own agenda of seizing control of the country. Walker was eventually defeated and León humiliated. The Conservatives took power and 30 years of peace followed (1857-93). Problems developed with Britain over the Mosquito (Caribbean) Coast and Bay Islands. After the American Civil War (1861-65), problems developed over both a possible canal to transit the Istmus and financial matters. Conservatives rule brought relative peace but little democracy and development. In a compromise between Granada and León (Conserbtives and Kiberals), Managua was made the capital (1857). Aa treaty with Britain resolved the Mosquito Coast/Bay Islands dispute (1860). The compromise was the nominal reincorporation of the Mosquito (Caribbean) coast with the rest of the country as an autonomous region. reservation. Complete jurisdiction over the Miskito people was not established until after Liberal President José Santos Zelaya.seized power in a coup (1893). Zelaya was a strongman (caudillo) in the Latin American tradution who dominated Nicaragua for nearly two decades (1893-1909). He was an ardent nationalist who dabbled with the idea of Central American union. He refused to consider an American proposal for an interoceanic canal through Nicaragua largely because he was suspicious of American motives. The United States respnded by taking over a failed French canal project across the Istmus of Panama. As this began, Zelaya began to reconsider his canal decesion, belatedly realising what a canal would mnean for the Nicaraguan economy. He approached the Europeans (Britain and Germany) and even Japan about fiancing a Nicaraguan canal. He did not find any takers, but further alinated the americans. Zelaya was in many ways a typical caudillo, but a typically he adopted several important political and social reforms. The most important was repealing laws abusing the rural peasantry (campesions). Campesinos is the Spanish term meaning the landless peasantry or farmers with small holdings. The Nicaraguan Government pssed laws requiring landless campesinos to work on plantations, primrily coffeee plantations, for low, subsistence wages. Ending this practice alienated the powerful planters who mostly supported the Conservtive Party.

American Intervention (1909-33)

Nicaraagua became on of countries involved in what some historians label, the Banana Wars. Relations with the United States deteriorated, especially after President Zelaya approached the Europeans about a competing canal. The Panama Canal was nearing completion. And the security of the Canal had become a central factor in American strategic thinking. As was the case with European countries, debt repayment was also a factor in the Banana Wars, including Nicaragua. American diplomats becan encouraging Zelaya’s Conservative opposition to challenge the long-time dictator. A rebellion ensued. Governent forces executed two U.S. citizens participating in the revolt, the United States Navy landed a small contingnt of marines in Bluefields on the Caribbean coast. This essentially prevented a Liberal victory. President Zelaya resigned (1909). Amrican authorities, however refused to recognize his replacement, José Madriz (1909–10). The rebellion moephed into a civil war. This led to Conservative, Adolfo Díaz becoming president (1911–17). It was to support Díaz that President Taft ordered in the Maines in force (1912). A 100-man guard at the U.S. Embassy in Managua came to symbolizeAmerican support for for Conservative presidents Emiliano Chamorro Vargas (1917–21) and his uncle Diego Manuel Chamorro (1921–23). The Bryan-Chamorro Treaty (1914) gave the United States what it primarily wanted--exclusive canal privileges in Nicaragua and the right to establish possible naval bases to protect the Panama Canal. The Unites States now that the Panama Canal was completed had no intention of building a second cnal in Nicaragua, but was intent on making sure that no one else did either. The Marines also guaranted debt repayment. After World War I and the declin of preceived security threats to the Panana Canal, President Coolidge withdrew the Marines (1925). He then ordered them in again to restore order after the disputed 1924 elections (1926). The Marines remained for nearly a decade. It is at this time that a teenager would begin a resistance movement -- César Augusto Sandino. He became a guerilla leader and organized small-scale resisrance in rural areas (1927). This would cintinue until President Franklin Roosevelt in the first year of his presidency launched the Good Neighbor Policy finally and finally withdrew the Marines (1933).

Somozas (1936-79)

After the Marines durung what has come to be called the Banana Wars withdrew from Nicaragua, the Somoza family seized power and ran the country as a kind of family fiefdom. Anastasio Somosa emerged as the country's strong-man ruler (1936-56). He ordered Sandino's assassination. He in turn was assassinated (1956). He was succeeded by his son Luis. Luis and trusted family friends altermated in the presidency as window dressing to obsure the total domination of the Samoza family. Luis died and was succeeded by his brother, Maj. Gen. Anastasio Somoza Debayle who was elected president (1967). The Somoza family dominated the country and permitted no oposition. They arrested, murdered, and exiled politcal opponents. Fmily membersv amassed a huge fortune by both coruption and acquiring important industries. They has some positive economic achievements, diverifying the economy and reducing the country's dependence on banana exports. U.S.-based multinational corporations played an imprtant role in the economy.

The FSLN

Castro's rise in Cuba helped inspire left-wing activists throughout Latin America. In Nicaragua Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, and Tomás Borge Martínez founded the Frente Sandanista de Liberacion Naxional (Sandinista National Liberation Front--FSLN) which became known as the Sandinistas. They attracted other student activists at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua (UNAN) in Managua (1961). Amador who emerged as the first General Secretary was an important organizer. He had worked with other students on a newspaper critical” of the Somoza reign -- Segovia. [Baracco, p. 61.] The FSLN began with about 20 core members during the 1960s. The students gradually gained support among both peasants and elements within Nicaraguan society that the Somozas had alienated. They also gained internationl support, predictably Cuban Communist government and the left-wing Panamanian government of Omar Torrijos. The moderate Venezuelan Socialist government of Carlos Andrés Pérez also supported them, disgusted with Samoza's brutality. The FSLN after a decade of work had built a the coalition of students, farmers, businesses, and churches. There was an overall Socialist orientation, but the core of the leadership had more hard core Marxist orintation. Again similar to the Cuban Revolution. The FSLN leadership decided they were strong enough to launch a military rising against the dictatorship of the latest Somoza scion--Anastasio Somoza Debayle. The FSLN following the Castro/Guevara playbook began with guerrilla actions in the countryside--choosing the isolated Northern coast of Nicaragua. The FSLN's Río Coco/Bocay-Raití Campaign failed. FSLN scirmishes with the National Guard resulted in heavy casualties. [Baracco, p. 66.] A serious dfeat near Matagalpa resulted in the death of Mayorga, one of the founders. As a resulted the FSLN deecalated the guerilla campaign and shited to reassessing their tactics and building the movement's organization.

Sandinsta Overthrow of the Somozas

Nature, the veneal nature of the Somozas, an President Carter intervnted to salvage the Sandanista Revolution Central America, espcially Nicaragua and Guatemala, has a long history of earthquakes. A massive 6.2 magnitude earthquake virtually leveled the capital city of Managua (December 23, 1972). The earthquake killed 10,000 people in Managua and left 50,000 homeless. An estimated 80 percent of buildings in Managua's commercial center were destroyed or damaged beyond repair. Some parts of downtown Managua were never rebuilt. Substantial international aid flowed into assist the devestated country. President Somoza and his corrupt Guardia Nacional (GN) embezzled much of the aid. [Walker, 2003, p. 31.] This proved to be the final straw for the Nicaraguan people. President Somoza gave reconstruction contracts preferentially to family and political associates. Some were sham contracts. The Somozas thus actully profiting from the quake at the expense of the Nicaraguan people. And President Somoza increased his control of the city's economy. Some authors estimate that his personal wealth increased US$0.4 billion (1974). The FSLN after a period of relative inactivity launched a new campaign based on kidnapping rather than military confrinatiins with the GN (August 1978). FSLN commandr Éden Pastora led a dramatic seizure of the National Palace while the legislature was in session, taking 2,000 hostages including many Somoza loyalists. They demanded money, the release of Sandinistan prisoners, and access to the media to publicize the 'Sandinista cause'. The Government after two days of intense negotiations agreed to pay $0.5 million and release certain prisoners. This and other high profile kidnapping resulting in victories that the FSLN had been unable to achieve in military engagemnts with the GN. In addition to the ransome money, the FSLN began to receive material support from Venezuela and Panama. Cuba also provided military equipment and training. Somoza ordered a crackdown. The brutality involved caused international censure. President Carter cut American aid because of the human rights violations. As a result the FSLN developed the military capability to take on Somoza's GN. A Cuban supported insurgency was launched by the Communist-dominated Sandinistas to finally overthrow the Somozas. For some, the Sandinistas became revolutinary heros. Many Nicaraguans , including democratic elements, supported them out of hatred for the Samozas, similar to what occured in Cuba. The Organization of American States (OAS) brokered negotiations between the FSLN and the Somoza Government. No progress ensued as Somoza refused to permit democratic elections (early 1979). By this time FSLN largely controlled the country, except Managua. Finally President Somoza resigned and the FSLN entered Managua (July 17).

Sandinista Rule (1979-90)

The Sandinista launched their final offensive (1979). After only 7 weeks of fighting, Somoza fled the country (July 17, 1979). The Sandinistas took control of the country 2 days later. The Nicaragua that the Sandinistas seized control was both indebted and devestated. Ther was a national debt of $1.6 billion, a huge amount for the small Nicaragun economy. There were some 30,000-50,000 war dead and 600,000 people homeless. The economy and infrastructure was devastated. [Walker, 1981] To begin the task of establishing a new government, they created a Junta (Council) of National Reconstruction. This was standard Communist tactics of pretending to create a government of national reconciliation with a broad popular base. Outside of Eastern R=Europe where the Red Army wasnot in cintrol, th process hd tobbe done more slowly. Despite the window dressing, the hard core FSLN Marxists had total power. The Saninistas appointed five members. Three were Sandinista militants (Daniel Ortega, Moises Hassan, and novelist Sergio Ramírez) -- all FSLN members. Two non-FSLN members wre also appointed to the Junta, businessman Alfonso Robelo and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow newspaper published Pedro Joaquín Chamorro killed by Somoza). As only three votes were needed to pass decrees, the Sandinistas were in total control. They proceeded to lunch a Cuban-style Communist program. They ignored the economic failure of Castro and Communism and replicated Cuban policies, both represive politics and socialist economics. They adopted the sam neigborhood enforcement mechaniss, used in Cuba--Committees for the Defense of the Revolution. The Saninista version was Comités de Defensa Sandinista, (Sandinista Defense Committees -- CDS). Conflict soon emerge between the Sandinista and non-Sandinista members of the governing Junta. Violeta Chamorro and Alfonso Robelo resigned (1980). It became increasingly obvious that the Ortega junta was moving to turn Nicaragua into another Communist state modeled on Castro's Cuba. The result was all too predictable--economic failure and political repression. And Nicaraguans began fleeing the country. The Sandinistas aligned Nicaragua with Soviet Empire. This brought Nicaragua into the Cold War. President Reagan who had just suceeded Presidebt Carter suspended U.S. aid (January 23, 1981). The Administration accuratly charged that Nicaragua was funneling Cuban and Soviet arms to rebels in El Salvador. The Sandinistas denied the charges.

Civil War and Elections (1981-90)

The Sandinita like the Samozas and Cubans did not permit free politcal opposition. An American suported revolution also followed--the Contras. Nicaraguan guerrillas calling themselves Contras launched a war to overthrow the Sandinistas. The Sandinistas finally held elections, controlling most of the media and election process (November 4, 1984). Daniel Ortega, the Sandinista junta coordinator, won the presidency. The war intensified as oppositon to the Sndinistas grew (1986–87). The Contadora (neutral Latin American) nations attempted negotiations, but failed. Costa Rican president Oscar Arias promoted a treaty signed by Central American leaders (August 1987). In the meantime changes in the Soviet Union and economic collapse in Cuba cut off Communist assistance that had been supporting the Sandinitas. Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega believing his own propaganda and departing from the Castro play book allowed a reltively free election. Violetta Barrios de Chamorro, owner of the opposition paper La Prensa, led a broad anti-Sandinista coalition to electoral victory (1990). This ended 11 years of chaotic Sandinista rule and huge damage to the economy.

Post-Sandinista Era

Chamorro poplariy gradually faded. She was faced with an economically devestated country. Both the Sandinista economic program and the civil war caused huge damage. Even a more forceful leader would have had problems Business groups were disapointed with the pace of reforms to restore the free market. Sandinistas were furious with the dismantling of what they saw as achievements. Some threatened to launch anotherarmed struggle. Many other people were disillusioned over governmental corruption. The continuing political support of the Sandinists comtinues in Nicaragua and makes economic development impossible. Nicaraguan and foreign buinessmen hesitate to invest money in a couuntry where the Sandinistas could regain opower and seize their asstts.

Attempted Recovery

Former Managua mayor and Conservative candidate Arnoldo Alemán won the presidenbtial election (1996). Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega was his major rival. Hurricane Mitch struck the country (1988). More than 9,000 people were killed and n incredible 2 million people were left homeless. Damage was estimated a $10 billion. This wouldhave been a catastrophe for a country with a strig economy, but Nicaragua thanks to the Sandinitas and Civil War was a bankrupt country with a barely functioning economy. It was one of the poorest countries in th Hemisphere. Another exodus to the United states occrred. The United States offered an immigration amnesty program through July 1999. Enrique Bolaños, the ruling Liberal Party leader, again defeated Ortega (November 2001). Former president Arnoldo Alemán was charged with fraud and embezzlement (August 2002). He was fond guilty and sentenced to prison for 20 years (2003). Ppresident Bolaños triumphantly called it the 'frying of the Big Fish'. The anticorruption group, Transparency International, condemned Alemán among the most corrupt leaders of the past two decades. The intrnational community attempted to aid Nicaragua. The IMF and World Bank forgave $4.5 billion of Nicaragua's debt (2004). A free-trade agreement with the U.S. (CAFTA) went into effect (April 2006).

Renewed Sandinist Rule (2006- )

Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega with considerble financial support from Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez won the presidential election (November 2006). He won 38 percent of the vote against a divided opposition. He assumed power (January 2007). A Nicaraguan chllenging President Ortega describes the political milleau introduced by the Sandinistas, "Ortega's "Sandinista party has since stifled the opposition through massive layoffs of public employees, from law enforcement to indepndent groups; controls on non-Sandinista entrepreneurs; political persecutionusing the police and the judiciary; and denying employment to working professionals and independent people who do not have the endorsement of the party." He adds, "Sandinista thugs get to beat prisoners for sport." [Guevara Mena, p. A17.] President Daniel Ortega was predictably re-elected in a landslide victory (November 2011). This time he received 63 percent of the vote. It is unclear how honest the election was. Hagamos Democracia, a National Democratic Institute partner organization based in Honduras, reported more than 600 complaints of voting irregularities. The European Union and other international election observers who observed the election reportd no major infractins, especially no signs of extreme violence at the polls, the most easily observable violation. The Sandinista National Liberation Front, also won many races in the legislature. This gave Ortega and the Sandinistas the ability to cange th country's constitution. Ortega had ignored Nicaragua's constitution which forbade leaders to serve consecutive terms. That constitution also limited the president to only two terms overall. The Nicaraguan Supreme Court, controlled by the Sandinistas, ruled that the constitution's limits were a 'violation of human rights'. Ortega and the sandinistas have proven adroit and winnng fixed elections. They like the Communists in Cuba have proven economic failures even with considerable support from Hugo Chavez in Venenuela. Poverty continues to afflict the Nicaraguan eople. About half of the country survives below the poverty line. Some 80 percent of the population surive on less than $2 per day. Extremely high unemployment and underemployment continue. Economic failure means that the govrernment can not support state services like public education and educationl standards are eroding. The regional drug trade and resulting violence also remain a major problem.

Sources

Baracco, Luciano. Nicaragua: The Imagining of a Nation - From Nineteenth-Century Liberals to Twentieth-Century Sandinistas (New York, NY: Algora Publishing, 2005)..

Guevara Mena, Roger. "Nicaragua and the anti-American Axis," Wall Street Journa (September 19, 2011), p. A17. Guevara Mena ran against President Ortega in the 2011 election. He previously served as Nicaragua's ambassador to the European Union, Benelux countries, and Venezuela.

Walker, Thomas. Nicaragua (4th ed.) (Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. 2003).

Walker, Thomas. Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981).

Created: 7:09 PM 3/5/2014
Last updated: 5:25 AM 11/21/2017