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Northern Central America and Mexico known as Mesoamerica were the home to important Native American civilizations, including the Maya and Aztec peoples. Despite stunning achievements, they were stone-age peoples and unable to effectively resist the Spanish Conquistadores. Central America became part of the Spanish colonial empire. The only exception was a small coastl area south of Mexico where an English settlemnt developed--British Honduras (modern Belize). Panama in particular was importaht, because it was over the Istmus that treasure shipments from Peru were transhipped to the Caribbean for transport to Spain. Relatively few Africas were imported for slave labor, although ths varied from country to country. Central Americans declared independence from Spain after the defeat of the Spanish royal armies in South America and Mexico. There were attempts by Mexico to annex Central America and an attempt at a Central American union. Eventually the various countries decided to persue a separate national future. The various countries encountered the same basic problems as the South american republics. Political life was dominated by the European land owning elite. The countries lurched between parlimentary regimes and periods of military or dictatorial rule. The Fench attempted to build a canal accross Panama. This was eventually accomplished by the United States, facilitating the independence of Panama. The region became involved in the Cold war, first Guatemala and than El Salvadoir and Nicaragua. The Nicaraguan civil war threatened to engulf all of the region. Democratic regimes now exist thoughout the region, but the countries still struggle to develop prosperous socities. Since independence and a failed effort at unon, Mexico has perued a separate historical path. Mexicans struggled over a centratist or federal approach. Texas rebelled. A war with theUnited States cost Mexico large areas of the north. One of the world's notable revolutions left Mexico with one-part rule by the Partido Revoluciario Institutinal (PRI). The PRI controlled Mexico until finally permutting a democratic election (2002). The PRI while carrying out needed social reforms, failed to create a prosperous Mexico.
Northern central America including Belize was dominated by the Mayan. The Maya appeared to have begun to move into coastal Belize from the Guatelan Highlands (about 1500 BC). The highpoint of Mayan civilization in Belize was a few centuries before the arival of the Spanish (1200 AD). Important Maya sites include: Caracol, Lamanai, Lubaantun, Altun Ha, and Xunantunich. Archeologists describe Maya cites with high population densities. Columbus sailed along the coast of Central America, including Belize (1502).
There was for a long time even after Spanish settlement of Mexico and elsewhere in Central America, no settlement along the coast of what is now Belize. The first European settlement seems to have been inadvertant--shipwrecked English seamen (1638). More English settlements followed, but the English hold on the coast was precarious. The number of settlers were limited. The economy was a diverse mixture of piracy and logging. The English imported Africans for slave labor. Thus modern Belize has a diverse population of blacks, English, Native Americans, and others. There were attacks by both Native Americans and the Spanish attempting to destoy the English toehold on Central America. Spain claimed all of Central America. While the English settlers were small in number, they had an importaht advantage--the Royal Navy. The English victory at St. George's Cay formly established the English claim (1798). Britain formaly estanlished the colony of British Honduras (1840), It became a Crown colony (1862). Britain granted Full internal self-government (1964). The country chznged its name to Belize (1973). Britain granted full independence (1981). The British Army, however, remained in the country because Belize whuch exerted the Spanish colonial claim, refused to recognize Belizian indeprndence. Guaremala has never formally dropped its claim, but finally recognized Belize's sovereignty (1991).
Costa Rica was at the time Columbys reached it inhabited by several diferent Native American with a population of about 0.4 million people. He sailed along the coast on his fourth and last voyage (1502). The Spanish conquest began two decaded later (1524). Settlement proceeded slowly. The country was a backwater in the Soanish Empire. Costa Rica achieved its independence at the same tome as Mexico (1821). Some Costa Ricans wanted to join Mexico and for short time Costa Rica united with its larger neighbor to the north. Agustín de Iturbide who achieved independence for Mexico attempted to turn it into a monarchy. CostaRica established an independent republic (1848) and has remained so except for a military dictatorship established by Tomás Guardia (1870-82). Somewhat apart from the general Latin American pattern, the Guardia period was one of progressive reform. The country gradually developed one of the most democratic traditions in Latin America. This was confirmed after a brief civil war following World War II (1948). Óscar Arias Sánchez became president (1986) and played an important role in ending the Nicaraguan and Salvadoran Civil Wars.
The area of modern Guatemala was the birthplace of the ancient Mayan civilization. The Maya arose in the Guatemalan highlands. The Maya was one of the great Meso-American cultures. They flourished not in Guatemala, but and surrounding regions especially the Mexican Yucatan during the first millennium A.D. The Maya were in a state of decline when Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado overwealmed them, giving birth to modern Guatemala (1524). Alvarado was looking for another fabulously welthy Narive American Empire, but the Maya in Guatemala had declined from their earlier prominance. Almost all of Central America became a part of the Spanish Empire, including Guatemala. The sole exception was the Mosquito Coast where English castaways and settlers resisted the Spanish. After achieving independence from Spain, Guatemala became part of the United Provinces of Central America. When the union collapsed, Guatemala decided on an independent republic (1839). As in other Spanish colonies, there was no tradition of democracy in Guatemala. Unsurprisingly, the country failed to establish democratic rule. Like other Latin American countries, caudillos have played a major role. Guatemala's independent history was rule by a series of strongmen, refelcting the competition for power between various factions of the ruling elite. The country's landless Native American population was largely left out of the political pricess. Two particularly strong rulers dominated the history of independent Guatemala. A major figure in Guatemala's history was dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera who comtrolled or strongly influenced the country for four decades (1898-1920). Gen. Jorge Ubico Castaneda ruled as another strongman (1931-44). Guatemala since World War II has had several military and civilian governments along with a 36-year guerrilla war. The pattern of Guatemalan history was finally shifted by the October Revolutionaries who overthrew Ubico (1944). Left-leaning students and professionals largely in Guatemala City helped install a liberal-democratic coalition governments led by Juan José Arévalo (1945–1951) and Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán (1951–1954). These governments instituted social and political reforms which sought to assist the peasantry and urban workers. The reform program alienated the military and big landowners who had previously dominated the country. One of the leading landowners was the United Fruit Company. Col. Carlos Castillo Armas organized a coup (1954). The United States involved in the Cold War with the Soviets was concerned about Communism in Latin America and supported Castillo. Arbenz fled to Mexico. Castillo began a series of repressive regimes aimed at turning back the clock in Guatemala. This led to the outbreak of a civil war (1960). Some of the major players were military governments, right-wing vigilante groups, and leftist rebels who after the Cuban Revolution received support from Castro. The civil war lasted 36 years and was mark with a series of attricities, especially Army actions against Native Amrican communities. The Guatemalan civil war was the longest such conflict in Latin American. Right-wing death squads often connected to the Army murdered an estimated 50,000 leftists or perceived leftists and political opponents during the heighth of the conflict in the 1970s. The United States during the Carter Administration suspended military aid to the Guatemaln military because of the horendous human rights records. Estimates suggest more than 0.2 million were killed and may have created 1 million refugees. The government signed a peace agreement formally ending the conflict (1996).
The Maya dominated western Honduras. Modern Hoinduras was on the southern perifery of the Myan world which was never a cntalized state like the Axtecs and Inca. The most important Mayan city-state in Honduras was Copán. The Mayan were atrading people and thus there were commerical contacts wih both the Mayan people to the north and the less sophisticated non-Mayan peopkle to the south. The Mayan in Honduras declined (early-9th century), centuries before the arrival of the Europeans. Mayan life continued on a lower level and Mayan traders were still sctive at the time the Europeans arrived. Commerce was conducted by large canoes which plied the Caribbean coast as far as Cuba. Christopher Columbus landed on the coast of modern Honduras near modern Trujillo on his fourth and last voyage (1502). He named the country Honduras because the waters was so deep along the coast. Spanish planters on Cuba with the the Native American population collapsing, raided the northern coast attempting to capture other Native Americans they could enslave. Conquistador Hernán Cortés after conquerung the Aztec Empire in Mexico, landed in Honduras (1525). He left 6 months later after failing to find another rich Native American empire to plunder, returning to Spain. Spanish planters on Cuba raided the northern coast attempting to capture Native Americans they could enslave. Pedro de Alvarado began the actual conquest of Honduras. He defeated the resistance led by Çiçumba near Ticamaya (1536). Alvarado divided the conquered native lands among his men. The natives living their essentially became slaves in the repartimiento system.
Spain ruled Honduras as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Comayagua and Tegucigalpa grew as silver mining centers. Honduras and other Spanish provinces in Central America achieved independence (1821). They were annexed by Iturbide's short-lived Mexico Empire. Honduras then joined the United Provinces of Central America (1823).
Differences between the various provinces resulted in the collapse of the federation (1838-39).
General Francisco Morazán attempted to hold the federation together. And even into the 20th century, Honduras was committed to Central American unity. Honduras became a separate state (1840). Britain controlled British Honduras (Belize), the Mosquito Coast, and Bay Islands.
The British saw American filibuster William Walker as a threat to their territory. The Royal Navy arrested him and turned him over to Honduran authotities. An Honduran firing squad executed him (1860).
An important project to build a rail line from the Caribbean coast to the capital at Tegucicalpa failed (1888). The line only reached small town of San Pedro Sula. As a result, it grew into the country's most important industrial center and second largest city.
Honduras developed as a primarily agricultural country. American companies, especially United Fruit, played a major in the country's economy, founding numerous banana plantatations along the tropical northern coast. The company played a major role in national affairs.
General Tiburcio Carías controlled Honduras for an extended period (1930s-40s). He was closely associated with United Fruit an military dictators in neighboring countries.
Provincial military leaders began to establish control over the country's two principal political parties: the National Party of Honduras (PNH) and the Liberal Party of Honduras (PLH).
Banana workers along the northern coast staged aeneral strike (1954). Reformists military officers carried out a coup and sucessfully set up a provisional junta (October 1955).
Constituent assembly elections resulted in the appointed of Ramón Villeda as President (1957). The Asssembly served as a Congress. The PLH was the dominahnt party (1957-63). The military evolving as a more professional institution and withdrew from politics. A new military academy graduating its first class (1960).
Conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed President Villeda in a bloody coup (October 1963). The military led by General Oswaldo López exiled PLH members and governed for several years before stepping down (1970). El Salvador invaded Honduras in the so-called Soccer War (July 1969).
Honduras returned to civilian rule with a democratic constitution (1982), Manuel "Mel" Zelaya of the Partido Liberal (PL) was elected president (2006). Honduyras like many Latin American countries has a bitter experience with presidents trying to make the office permanent and thus had a contitunional provision prohibiting reelection. President Zelaya pursuing populist policies, attempted to pursue a reelectioi attempot in violation of the country's Constitution. He was subsequently removed from office by the Supreme Court and escorted out of the country by the military (2009). The United States has intervened in Honduran affairs by attempting to reinstall Zelaya and has cut off assistance to Homduras as well as other actions discouraging tourists.
The Toltec people of the Central Valley of Mexico developed corn. Although not immediately a important as the potato, it is today with the 20th century develooment of synthetic fertilizer the single most important food crop. This made possible the moderbn expansion of the world population. The Native Americans the Spanish Conquistadores encountered were the Maya and Aztec. The Aztec in particular were a chillingly blood thirsty people, exceeduing the Spanish in their lust for war, but not in their abiity to make war. The Spanish Conquistadores wanted gold, but it was corn that was Mexico's great contribution to human society. European diseases descimated Native American populations. Mexico languished as a Spanish colony for over 300 years. Mexico under Spanish rule was an essentially feudal country. It achieved independence from Spain (early 19th century), in part because of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars--the Peninsula Campaign. A weakened Spain could not hold on to its colonies. A war with the United states resulted in the loss of the sparsely populated north. The Diaz dictatorship introduced a degree of modernization, but did not address deep-seeded social problems. Mexico's Revolution came a century after independence. (20th century). The Revolution brought the Partido Rvolucinario Institucional (PRI) to power (1920s). The PRI brought a degree of social justice, but not economic prosperity. Coruption flowing from one-party rule as well as an emphasis on state corportations that proved both inefficent and ineffective account for much of Mexico's economic failure. This failure has meant that millions of Mexicans have crossed the border to seek decent paying jobs in the United States. The PRI governed Mexico with a thin veneer of democracy for 80 years. Mexico held its first truly democratic election and the PRI was voted out of power (2000). Today millions of Mexicans still can not make a decent living in their own country and countinue to cross the northern border to work illegally in the United States. There does not seem to be a serious domestic discussion as to why the country cannot prosper economically. Many Mexicans seem nore intent on blameing America and free enterprise for their country's economic failure.
Spanish Conquistador Gíl González de Ávila defeated the Native american forces FernáCacíque Nicaro (1522). Fernández de Córdoba founded León and Grenada (1524). These two cities developed as competing centers. León became both a political and cultural center. Grenada developed as a stronghold of the aristocracy. Competition between the two centers became a destabiling force. Nicaragua achieved independence from Spain (1821). Mexico's short term Emperor, Iturbide, folded in Central America to his Mexican Empire. When this disolved, Nicaragua joined the Central American Federation (1825-38). With the break up of the Federation, Nicaragia became independent (1838). After Nicaragua became independent, to reduce domestic tensions, Managua was founded as a compromose capital (1855). Problems developed with Britain over the Mosquito (Caribbean) Coast and Bay Islands. Nicaragua was one of the countries targeted by American Filibuster William Walker. After the Civil War in the United States, problems developed over both a possible canal to transit the Istmus and financial matters. Nicaragua's most important leader dyring this period was José Santos Zelaya (1894-1909). Relations with the United States deteriorated. The United States intervened in Nicaragua, stationing Marines to guarantee debt repayment (1912-25 and 1926-1933). Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino orgabized a guerrila war to resist the Marines. The Marines were withdrawn by President Roosevelt as part of his Good Neighbor Policy. After the Marines with drew, the Somoza family seized power and ran the country as a kind of family fiefdom. Anastasio Somosa emerged as the country's strong-man ruler (1936-56). When he was assasinated, he was replaced by his son Luis (1956-63). Another son, Anastasio, was elected president (1967). A Cuban supported insurgency was launched by the Sandinistas to finally overthrow the Samosas. For some, the Sandinistas became revolutinary heros. When they suceeded they ignred the economic failure of Castroand Communism and rplicated Cuban policies, both represive politics and socialist economics. The result was all too predictable economic failure. An American suported revolutioin also followed--the Contras. Sndinista leader Daniel Ortega believing his own propaganda and departing from the Castro play book allowed a reltively free election and lost. The continuing political support of the Sandinists comtinues in Nicaragua and makes economic development impossible. The country does received economic suport from Hugo Chavez inVenezuela to stay afloat.
Columbus explored The Caribbean cost of Panama (1502). Balboa first crossed thev Istmas to discover the Pacific, confirming that the Spanish had found a new continent and not Asia. Panama was critical to the Spanish colonial empire. It was the the principal trans-shipping point for transporting Peruvian gold and silver to the Caribbean to load the treasure fleets bringing the treasure to Spain. The Central Americans revolted against Spain (1821). Panama unlike the rest of Central America joined Colombia which was already an independent republic. This did not prove a happy union and the Panamanians soon attempted to breakaway from Colombia. One historian calculates that between 1850-1900 Panama had 40 different administrations, because of unsettled conditions, both in Colombia and Panama. In Panama there were 50 important riots, 5 attempted secessions, and 13 U.S. interventions. Panama continued to be important as a transhipnent point and until the United States built the transconintental railway, was the primary connection between the Eastern United States and California. Many gold seekers crossed the Istmas to reach California after gold was discovered (1849). After the construction od the Suez Canal, world attention turned to Panama. The French tried to build a canal, but the result was failure and a massive financial scandal. Then American President Theodore Roosevelt decided that a canal could and should be built. An American proposal for canal rights over the Isthmus was rejected by the Colombian Senate. Panamaians seized the opportunity, proclaimed their independence, and received U.S. support (1903). The new government signed a treaty with the United States. Panama granted the United States canal rights in perpetuity, The United States proceeeded to build the canal--one of the great engeneering achievements of the age. Roosevelt saw it as his most important achievement. Panama received $10 million and an annual payment of $0.25 million. The United States increased this to $0.43 million (1933) and $1.93 million (1955). The Canal Zone was a 10-mile-wide strip across the Isthmus. Nationalist feeling in Panama gradually agitated for control of the Canal. Gen. Omar Torrijos Herrera and President Jimmy Carter signed treaties giving Panama gradual control of the Canal (1977). They also phased out U.S. military bases. The Panamanian Government guaranteed the Canal's neutrality.
Modern El Salvador was on the southern fringe of Mesoamerica and the Mayan cultural zone. Important trives included the Pipil (related to the Aztecs), Pocomames and Lencas. The Spamish first landed at Meanguera Island in the Gulf of Fonseca. The Spanish conquest of the Native American tribes in El Salvador was conducted in conjunction with the conquest of the tribes in Guatemala. Spanish Admiral Andres Nino led an expedition south from Mexico and Guatemala (1522). Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado launched a campaign to conquer Cuscatlan (1524). His better-known cousin, Diego de Alvarado, founded San Salvador (1525). King Carlos I of Spain (Emperor Charles V) granted San Salvador the title of city (1546). Modern El Salvador during the Spanish colonial period was part of the Captaincy of Guatemala. It was for the most part a quiet backwater of the Spanish Empire. During the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the criollo population as in other areas of the Spanish Empire in South and Central America began to act on long held grevences. Father Jose Matias Delgado rang the bells of La Merced Church in San Salvador calling for insurrection (1811). The people began to organize resistance to Spanish authorities. El Salvador and other Central Americans formally declared independence (1821). Mexico's short-term Emperor, Iturbide, folded in Central America to his Mexican Empire. There was from the beginning resistance in El Salvador. ElSalvador became a part of the United Provinces of Central America (1823). This Federation was composed of the five Central American states under Gen. Manuel Jose Arce. The Federation after a little more than a decade was disolved (1838). With the break up of the Federation, El Salvador and the other Central American states became independent (1838). This began a period of instability throughout the region. There were frequent revolutions and coups as well as constantly changing constitutions. Coffee was introduced as a commercial crop (mid-19th century). It proved very successful and, as a result, there was a substantial increase in population. The country today has the highest population density in Central America. Only after the turn-of-the 20 century was a degree of stability achieved. TheUnited States intervened in Costa Rica and Nicatagua, but not in El Salvador. General Martinez seized control of the government (1931) and attempted to destroy the Communist Party and their supporters. He openly supported Fasists in Europe, but by the time of Pearl Harbor joined the other Latin American countries in U.S,-promoted hemispheric solidarity against the Axis. A left-wing military junta seized control of the government (1960). A more moderate military government replaced it (1961). An elected president, Julio Adalberto Rivera, was elected (1962). The country's tenous democratic institutions were unabke to deal with the conflict between consrvativs and the military and Cuban influence left wing insurgents (1970s). The success of the Sandistias in Nicaragua (1979) meant that the guerillas had access to arms and other support. The result was a vicious civil war (1980-92). An estimated 75,000 people died in the fighting and attacks by both sides on civilians. The two sides after extended negotiations finally signed peace accords ending the war (1992). As part of the agreement the military was brought under civilian control. The guerillas laid down their arms and were allowed to form a legal political party and participate in elections.
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