Iranian History


Figure 1.--The Shah pursued a modernization campaign of conservative Iranian socity and during his rule, Iranian women became some of the most emancipated in the Muslim world. Ayatollah Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution brought this to a schrechung halt (1979). Here young women supporters if th Islamic Revolution parade shrouded in black chadors and shouldering AK-47s. Western fashions and makeup were denouncedas un0-Islamic and women could be beaten on the street for not compliing with new dress codes. Restructins were placed on their movement and assicuations and the ability to obtain higher education anf enter the professions.

What became Persia was on the perifery of Tigris-Euphrates River which was the one of the great cradles of civilization--Mesopotamia. As agricultural technology advanced, civilization arose in Persia. The Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC) was one of the great empires of all time. A ci\vilization of cultural brilliance. Part of its greatestness was its tolerance of ideas and religions. It was Cyrus the Great who freed the Jews from their Babylonian Captivity. He issued the first known Charter of Rights of Nations, The Persian Empire was smashed by Alexander the Great ushering n the Helinisic Era. Various empires rose and fell in Persia. Persian sucessorswar with the Roman Empire. The native Zoriatrian Religion and Christisanity was overwealmed by Islam (7th century AD) ending with the Mongol Conquest (13th centtury). After the Monol Conquest susequent Persian regimes were backwaters of world history. In the modern era Persia found itself caught between Russian and British Imperialism. The Iranian toyed with the NAZIs in the lead up to Wold War II. This prompted British and Soviet intervention and Iran became the major conduit for vital American Lend Lease aid to the resurgent Red Army. The development of Iran's oil resources provided the financing needed to modernizxe the country. The United saes supported the Shah during the Cold War. A reaction to the strains of modernization was the Islamic Revolution led by the Ayatola Kommenni. Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein saw the brealk with America as the opportunity to deal with the Islamic Revolution, but it lead to the debilitating Iran-Iraq War (1980-88). Kimmenni and his followers constructed an Islamic theocracy which use force to suppress democratic critics. The Iranian mullahs seem intent in establishing Iran as the dominant power in the Middle East often looking back to the past glories of the Persian Empire. In sharp contrast there is no cultural brilliance and even with enormous oil resources the country is an economic failure.

Prehistory

Persia is not one of the early cradles of civilization and Persian civilization did not develop in river valley. Persian civilization developed east of the Fertile Crescent on the Iranian plateau of central Asia. The time line here is a subject of archeological debate. Some had thought that the Iranian plateau was not settled until about 1500 BC by Aryan tribes, especially the Medes. The Medes in the north and Persians in the south were the two major tribal groups peopleing the Iranian plateau. Both were at first nomasdic people who gradually developed settle agriculture. The Medes were ar first the dominant group. The name Persian comes from the Parsua, another Aryan tribe. Other archeologists report evidence of advanced civilization much earlier. Literary accounts from Mesopotamia describe the mysterious Broze Age civilization of Aratta. Some believe this is a mythical civilization. Others believe that Aratta was located in Armenia or Persia. An Iranian archeologist is escavating ruins in the Halil River Valley of southeastern Iran at Tepe Yahya and Jiroft. Artifacts suggest that urban centers were on trade routes between Mesopotamia and the Indus River culture. One archeologist theorizes that it may be the oldest Oriental civilization and perhaps may predate Mesopotamia. That claim seems fanciful at this time, but ruins there are clearly quite old. He dates artifacts to the mid 3rd mellennium. There are drainage systems and stone foundations. The drainage system and irrigation canals appears to have been the technological leap that allowed the Persians to gain superiority over the Medes and other rival tribes. One early archeological find is a mound which appears to have been a kind of Ziggurat temple comple made with 3-4 million mud bricks. Archeologists Yousef Madjidzadeh dates the civilization at 2700 BC. [Lawler]

Ancient Persia

Persia is not one of the early cradles of civilization and Persian civilization did not develop in river valley. Persian civilization developed east of the Fertile Crescent on the Iranian plateau of central Asia. The Iranian plateau was not settled until about 1500 BC by Aryan tribes, especially the Medes. The name Persian comes from the Parsua, another Aryan tribe. The first great war chief was Hakhamanish or Achaemenes who founded the Achaemenid dynasty about 700 BC. The Achaemenids built a great capital city at Persepolis. They conquered a vast empire from Egypt to India. Conquered were allowed to keep their own religion, customs, and laws and were governed by natove princes. The Persians encouraged cultural diversity. They saw the world as a cosmic struggle between good and evil, concepts that profoundly influenced Jewish and Christian theology. Darius the Great after crushing a Ionian Greek revolt in Anatolia was defeated by the Greeks in the epic battle of Marathon in 490 BC, one of the decisive battles of history. Alexander defeated Darius III in battles 334-331 BC, destroying the Persian Empire. Alexander hoped to unite the Greeks and Persians into one great empire. His early death undid these ambitious plans. Following a civil war among his generals, Seleucus, gained control over the Persian part of his empire. At the same time Potolomy gained control of Egypt. Unlike Alexander's plans, Seleucus ruled Persia as a conquered land through Greek troops and satraps. The Parthians overthrew the Greeks, who were unable to generate Persian support, about 250 B.C. The Parthians came from the deserts of central Asia. Unlike the Greeks, they were impressed with Persian civilization and ruled Persian through native kings. The Parthian empire lasted more than four centuries and during that period there was no important Persian revolt. The Parthians were one of the few people who successfully resisted the Roman Empire, desimating a Roman army led by Anthony. This played a major role in the defeat of Anthony and Cldeopatra by Octavian. Gradually Christianity spread to Persia and the power of the Parthians wained. Artaxerxes, a descendant of Sassan, in 226 A.D., declared Persia independent of Parthia and began a military campaign aginst neignoring countries and the Parthians. The revived Persian Empire like the Parthians were able to challenge Rome at the height of its power.

Islamic Conquest (636)

The Arabs emerged from the Arabian desert and invaded both Mesopotamia amd Persia. Arab armies after the conquest of the Levant turned east to Persia. The Persian Empire confronted by Arab armies had been weakened by war with the Byzantine Empire. Arab armies after their victory over the Byzantines turned east. They first seized Mesopotamia (modetn Iraq) from the Persians and then conquered Persia itself. Aran warriors, fired by Islamic fervor, smashed much lasrger Persian armies. Persia was incorporated into the Islamic Calipate. Zoroastrianism was gradually replaced by Islam as the majority religion of the Persian people.. Persia was not, however, Arabized like Mesopotamia, the Levant, Egypt, North Africa, Somalia, and Sudan. At in part out of resistance to the Arabs, the Shiia sect of Islam became dominant in Persia. ThecArab comquest of Persia was but one phase of a much wider advance of Islam spread by Arab armies.

Medieval Persia

Persia emerged as an important cultural center in the ancient world. Formidable mountins created a natutral fortress which aided Persians to build a destinct cultural identity in relative security, although major conquests added to the cultural mix. Alexander was the first conqueror (4th century BC). In modern modern times the Arabs invaded as imposed Islam (7th century). Than the Turks (10th century), and the Mongols (13th to 15th centuries). Modern Persian history begins with overthrow of Mongol control. We do not yet have information on Persian history after the Mongols. We do have some Persian images with depictions of clothing. Unlike much of Islam, Persia apparently permitted human depictions.

Safavid Empire (1502-1736)

Nortwestern Persia evolved differently from the rest of Persia before and during the Mongol/Timurid era. Turkoman peoples fought internally for supremecy. The first important Turkoman Dynasty was the Kara-Koyunlu, or "Black Sheep" (1275-1468) which was centered around Tabriz. It was suplanted by the Ak-Koyunlu, or "White Sheep" (1434-1514). A third dynasty, the Safavids (1502-1737), emerged from what is now Azerbaijan on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Shah Ismail (1487-1524) founded the dymasty at a time when the Mongol Timurid dynasty had declined. . Shah Ismail conquered an expansive kingdom from from Herat (in modern Afghanistan) to Baghdad (in Iraq) and including all of Persia. The Safavid dynasty was named in honor of Sheikh Safi-od-Din of Ardabil, an ancestor of Shah Ismail and spiritual insiration for the Safavid Sufi order which was founded in 1301. Sufism had a profound impact on Islam and was especially important in Persia. The Safavid Sufi order was at first little different than the other Sufi orders which swept the Islamic world. The Sufi leader Junayd rose to head the Safavid order (1447). He founded a revolutionary Shi'ite movement that sought to seize power from the seculasr Timurid rulers of Mongol rulers. While the Safavid dynasty was of Iranian origin, they found support for their movement from the Shi'ite Turkoman tribesmen outside of central Persia, primarily from Anatolia, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, and the Armenian highlands. The Safavids successfully, however, suceeded in gaining control of the entire Iranian plateau and founded the first modern Persian state. One of the most renowned Sagfavid ruler was Shah Abbas I (1571-1629). He promoted trade with Europe. His new capital, Isfahan, became the most modern city in Persia with many magnificent new buildings. . He opened embassies in European capitals, this and the expanding trade introduced Persian art and literature to Europe for the first time.

Afsharid Dynasty (Nader Shah) (1736-57)


Zand Dynasty (1757-94)


Qajar Dynasty (1794-1925)

The Qajar Dynasty ruled in Iran (1795-1925). A Constitutional Revolution occurred in Iran just before World War I (1906-09). Iranian reformers sought to curb the arbitary power of Shah Muzaffar ad Din and install a modern elected parliament. The first Majlis was elected (1906). Iran at the time was not a state with a population willing to operate undermocracy and the ballot box. The result was disorders in the pfrovinces. Some of the population was nomadic with very traditional outlook. Many were unwilling to support the new government. In prt because of the growing instability, Britain and Russia sign the Anglo-Russian Agreement (1907). This divided Iran into spheres of influence,. The Russians achieved exclusive right to the north along the Cauususes. The British claimed the south along the Persian Gulf nd the east along British India. The treaty detailed a neutral sphere in central Persia which was open to both signatories. Mohammad Ali Shah sought to restablish royal power (1908). A brigade loyal to the shah with Russian officers fired on the Majlis. The Brirish discovered important oil fields in Iran (1908). The British formed the Anglo-Persian Oil Company company (APOC--modern British Petroleum) to develop the resource. Military units loyal to the new constitution match on Tehran and depose the shah. Mohammad Ali Shah is forced into exile in Russia. Disputes develop between the constitutional government and the Russians over taxing rights. The Russians object to the government collecting takes in its sphere and Russian trops stationed in Oersia move on Teheran. Eventually the Majlis accepts the Russian demands, but then is again closed (1911). The new Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) begins to build an oil refinery at Abadan Island in the Persian Gulf. The political situation in Persia is further complicated by the War and foreign intervention. The urban middle classes and intelligentsia with the failure of democracy were more willing to accept a strong-man ruler. This was to create an opportunity for Reza Shah. World War I (1914-18)

Constitutional Revolution (1906-11)


World War I (1914-18)

When World War I breaks out in Euope (August 1914), Persia declared its neutrality, but the presence of Russian, Turkish and British troops as well as the importance of the newly discovered oil resources makes this in practice impossible. The Royal Navy signs a long-term contract with the APOC to supply fuel oil for the fleet. The British Government purchases a majority of the company's stock. Persia bordered on the Ottoman Empire which had held Mesopotamia since 1534. The Britain needed the oil for its fleet. The most modern dreadnoughts had been converted from coal furnaces to clearn burning oil. The British after the Ottomans entered the War launched an offensive and took Basra (Mesopotamia/Iraq) with its oil wells (November 1914). The British also occupied the terminus of the oil pipeline and the refineries situated on Abadan Island (Persia) in the Shatt El Arab. This was the border between Ottoman Mesopotamia and Persia. Accross the border the British and Ottomons fought over Mesopotamia. Some Persian soldiers fought with the Ottomans. A Ottoman diversionary force crossed the Tigris (April 1915) as a threat to pro-British Persia, especially the refinery at Ahvaz. The British suffered a major defeat at El Kut in Mesopotamia (Iraq). The British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force regrouped and launched another attack. They crossed the Tigris and captured Kut-el-Amara (December 1916). The British reached Baghdad (March 1917). Turkish offensives drove toward Baku in the Caususes supported by the Germans to tghe north. The Ottomons also moved into northeaster Iran (autumn 1918). The British responded with small mobile forces (Dunsteforce expedition). Ottomon military power is broken, however by a British drive from Bagdad toward Mosul and the British Arab drive toward Jeurusalem and Damascus and then as far noth as Alepo. With the outbreak of the Bolshevick Revolution, Russia was no longer an important player in Persia. Britain attemoted to establish a kind of protectorate under the terms of the Anglo-Persian Agreement. Iranian nationalists objected. Iranian Prime Minister Vosuq od-Dowleh supported the agreement because the Majlis refused to approve it. Vosuq od-Dowleh was forced out of office. Moshir al-Doleh replaces him. The elected government was again overthrown in a British-instigated military coup.

Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-79)

The Iranian shahs or emperors ruled as absolute monarchs until the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-11). At that time, Iran became a constitutional monarchy. Reza Khan leading a force of Persian Cossacks seized control (1921). Reza Khan became prime ministership. Reza Khan formally deposed the royal Qajar Dynasty (1925). He then has himself crowned shah (1926) founding the Pahlavi Dynasty. He changed the name of the country to Iran, a name wgich had racist associations with the pre-historic Aryan peoples. Reza Shah had NAZI orientations. The Soviet Union and Britain occupied the country during World War II to ensure the safe passage of Lend Lease materials. The British replaced Reza Shah with his young son--Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Iran developed its oil industry after the War, generating huge income. The United States supported the Shah in the Cold War. The Shah used the oil income to begin the modernization of the country. He did not allow the development of democratic institutions. This led to growing popular resistance. The modernization program offened conservatibe Muslim elements. The Shah's secret police suppressed democratic reforners and Islamic fundamentalists alike. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi proved to be the last shah. The Islamic Revolution led by the Ayatollah Khomeini forced the Shah to flee the country. The Islamic Revolution abolished the monarchy and created a theocratic republic.

World War II (1939-45)

Reza Shah's Government declared Iran neutral with the outbreak of World War II in Europe. The British suspected that the Shah was sympathetic with the NAZIs who were active diplomatically in Iran. The Iranians rejected British demands to expel Axis agents. After the NAZI invasion of the Soviet Union it became vital to open supply lines to the Soviets. The British and Soviets thus launched a coordinated invasion (August 26, 1941). The Soviets invaded from the north. The British from Iraq where they had defeated a pro-Axis rebellion and by troops landed along te Persian Gulf. There was only limitedd resistance. Reza Shah abdicated (September 16). His son ascended the throne as Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. At the time of the War, Iran had just begun to develop its petroleum indutry. It did not play an important factor in the War. Britain fought the War largely with American oil, although the 8th Army fought the War in the Western Desert largely with Iraqi oil. Iran's importance in the War was largely as a conduit for American Lend Lease shipments to the Soviets. Iran in fact became the major conduit for American Lend Lease aid to the Soviets. Given the fact that the Wehrmacht was largely destroyed on the Eastern Front by the Red Army, these supplies delivered through Iran were very important indeed.

Mosaddegh: 28 Mordad coup (1953)

Iran developed after World War II as a constitutional monarchy with Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as the young Shah. Nationalist parties dominated the legislature. Mohammad Mosaddegh dominated the nationalist faction in parliament. Mosaddegh oversaw the passed of legislation nationalzing the growing oil industry (1951). The bill passed with a near-unanimous vote. The industry atthe time was controlled by the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) which had made the needed investments to developed it. (AIOC was the origins of the modern compahy British Petroleum (BP). Popular discontent with Britain hd begun to develop even before the War in both Iraq and Iran. Both countries developed pro-NAZI policies, both because the NZIs opposed Britain s the colonial power and becuse of shared attitudes toward Jews and race. The Allies seized both countries during the War. After the War the Allies wihdrew and eventually the Soviets as well, lthough reluctantly. The anti-British feelings thus could be openly expressed in Irans's developing political system. One of the most important issues becam AIOC because of the great wealth involved. A substantial part of the Iranian public and many politicians incresingly sae the AIOC was as colonial exploitative and a prime vestige of British imperialism. [Gasiorowski, p. 59.] Britain as a result of World War II had liquidated most of its foreign assetts. Thus AIOC was Britain's single most valuable remaining foreign asset and the British thus organized an international boycott of Iranian oil. Britain considered a mikitary operation to seize control of the Abadan oil refinery, the largest in the world. Prime Minister Clement Attlee opted, however, for the economic boycott. Britain also sureptiously found Iranian agents to weaken Mosaddegh's government. Mosaddegh responded by closing the British Embassy. President Truman was unwilling to support a coup. [Kinzer, p. 3.] American policy was focused more on the Cold War than the oil. Truman and his advisers attempted to working out a compromise oil agreement between Mosaddeq and British. Their assessment was that Mosaddeq as a nationalist was the most effective barrier to a Tudeh (communist) takeover in Iran. The Tudeh Party had been strebgthened by the Wotrld War II Soviet occupation of northwestern Iran. The change of Governments in Britain and America changed the trajectgory of Iranian policy. Conservative governments were elected in both Britain (Windton Churchill) and the United States (Dwight Eisenhower). Both Churchill and Eisenhower decided to overthrow the Mosaddegh Government. Analysts in the Eisenhower administration concluded that Mosaddeq's inability to withstand Tudeh subversion or a coup creted a dangerous opening for Soviet subversion. [U.S. NSC 136/1] Both American and British agenests orchestrated the 28 Mordad coup (August 19, 1953). Not only was Mosaddegh overthrown, but Shah Mohammad-Rezā Shāh Pahlavi used the coup to begin the trahnsformation of from a constitutional monarch to an authoritarian one who relied heavily on a vicious secret poice to mauntain his hold on power. [Abrahamian] The assessment of the coup and is aftermath is often simplistically repprted in both Iran and the West. There is no doubt that Britian and America overthrew a democratically elected government and replace it with an autocrat who ruled through a secret police (Savak). [Abrahamian] That is a fair criticism of American and British policy and a clear violation of the democraric principles for which both countries stand. Much of the discussion in Iran and the West is, however, simplistic and colored by the author's ideological orientation. Rarely os the Coup put in a Cold War context. And very few authors consider what would have happened to the Iranian people (especially the Islamicists) had they fell victim to Soviet subversion. One can look at the countries that were vicims of Soviet expanionism and local Communists (Eastern Europe, Cuba, North Korea, and Cambodia). Of course, one can reasobably argue that Mosaddegh would have been the best defense against the Tudeh, but tht is speculative. Perhaps, perhaps not. Another line of argument is that Anglo-American coup led to Ayatollah Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution. That is, however, a streach. Certainly, the Coup and American support for the Shah led to anti-Western sengiment. The fact that America saved Iran from the Soviets after World War II and greatly expanded the country's infrasructure is barely mentioned, suggesting that Americn actions were not going to be fairly assessed. Khomeini is fundamentally a Iranian creation. The Middle East is populated with tyrants for which America and rhe West is not responsible: the Assads, Hussein, Qadafi and other lesser tyrants. The dynamic of Middle Eastern politics has been clearly one of tyranny and the causes for this process need to be assessessed in a more sophisticated way than just blaming America.

Islamic Revolution (1978-79)

Ayatollah Khomeini had lived at An Najaf in Iraq for 15 years. Sadam saw him as potentially helpful in his disputes with the Shah. Eventually Saddam began to see Khomeini's influence growing and potentially harmful to his plans. He thus expelled Khomeini (1977). Khomeini went to France where helived in exile at Neauphle le Chateau in the south of Paris as political refugee. He resented his expullsion as well as the many Shia victims of Saddam's Baathist repression. The Shah helped bring Iran into the modrn world. Many of his reforms such as equal rights for women were not well received by conservative Iranian society. The Shah's esponse was Savak and repression. The Shah rukes as an absolute monarch. And he made little effort to attract popular support among the country's middle-class through power sharing. Disorders inspired by Khomeini's fundamentalist supporters forced the Shah to flee in 1979 and the Ayatollah returned to the acclaim of massive street demonstrations. They included not only Islamivosts, but also the country's more modern youth. One impact of the Iranian Revolution closely watched by Saddam was the decline of the Imperial Iranian Army. Most of its highest ranking officers who were loyal to the Shah were executed or fled Iran. Relations with the United States and the country's most important arms supplier Saddam tried to fuel the disorders within Iran. Iraqi agents in the south (Arab-speaking Khuzestan) incited riots over labor disputes. Saddam in the north supported Iranian Kurdish region, inciting a new rebellion which created further problems for the already unstable Revolutionary regime. Khomeini also moved to undo the Shah's efforts to modernize Iran, especialyy the full enfranchisement of women.

Iran-Iraq War (1980-88)

Saddam launched an invasion of Iran in 1980 bringing about the largest war between Muslim states in history and resulting in hundreds of thousands of casualties, including countless poorly trained Irainan boy soldiers. Sadam was concerned about the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the potential impact on Shite Iraqis. Border skirmishes occurred in September 1980 with artillery exchanges on both sides. Saddam as a result officially abrogated the 1975 treaty between Iraq and Iran and decalred that the Shatt al Arab waterway between the two countries belonged to Iraq. Iran rejected this and hostilities escalated. The two countries conducted bombing raids into each other's territory. Saddam felt that a quick victory over the Iranians was possible. He anticipated the Arabic-speaking, oil-rich area of Khuzistan would rise up against Ayatolah Khomeini's fundamentalist Islamic regime. This did not occur and the Arab minority in Iran remained loyal to Iran. Saddam began the War with a surprise air attack designed to destroy the Iraina air force on the ground--a tactic learned from the Isrealis. Iraqi Soviet-supplied MiG-23s and MiG-21s on September 22, 1980, attacked major Iranian air bases. They caused substantial damage, but did not knock out the Iranian Air Force which launched its American supplied F-4 Phantoms to strike targets near major Iraqi cities. Coordinating with the air strikes, Saddam ordered six Iraqi army divisions into Iran on three fronts. This surprise attack was successful and drove 8 kilometers into Iran.

Islamic Republic (1979- )

Iran viewed Britain as its primary intrnational enemy, primarily because of British control of the oil industry (AIOC). American Cold War support for the Shah added American which became the Great Satan to its enemies list. The Mulahas are oblivious to or do not want to have their thinking reminded with the extent to which America saved Iran from being added to the Soviet Empire. President Ahmadinejad dreamed up the idea of demanding repations for the Allied intervention in Iran. The problem with this was there was very little fighting and destrction and massive American investments in Iranian infrastructure. The purpose was to get American Lend Lease supplies to the Soviet Union. The impact was rather than damage, America left Iran with modern infrastructure. Ahmadinejad quietly dropped the idea. One historian with the Islamic Revolutuion describes the 'Twiligh War', a secret war wuith miscalculations on both sides , bitter debates, and hidden casualties. There were secret negotiations following the Al Qaeda 9-11 attack (2001). The Iranians launched clandestine counterattacks after the American invasion of Iraq (2003). [Crist] The major issue which has emerged is Iran's atomic bomb project. The West for years has tried to negotiate with the Iranians. The Iranians have used this to buy time. The Obama Administrtion has intensified the economic pressure, but the Mullahs have shown no willingness to compromise on their quest for a bomb.

Sources

Abrahamian, Ervand. The Coup: 1953, the CIA and the Roots of Modern U.S.-Iranian Relations (1953), 304p. Abrahamian is the author of many works on ranian history and a professor at the City University of New York. He displays a encyclopedic knowledge of the coup and the people involved, especially the Iranians. We take issue, however, on his assessment, especially the degree to which America is resoonsible for Khomeini, Nor do we think he puts the Coup in a Cold War context. He describes the Shah's regime as auppet regime. This is not accurate. Abrahamian needs to look at the true puppet regimes such as the Soviet Eastern Eutopean Empire. The United States certainly influenced the Shah, but did not dictate to him. And the United States did not act to stop oil price rises which helped create an affluent properous Iran, in stark comparison to the policies of the Ayatollah and his successors.

Crist, David. The Twilight War (20120, 656p.

Gasiorowski, Mark J. U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State (Cornell University Press: 1991).

Kinzer, Stephen. All the Shah's Men (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008).

U.S. National Security Council (NSC). "United States Policy regarding the Present Situation in Iran," (NSC 136/1). op Secret Report, November 20, 1952 in Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, ed. Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran.







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Created: 8:50 PM 1/30/2010
Last updated: 4:20 AM 3/10/2014