|
International organizations have come to play an increasingly important role in history. There have associations appearing early in history. Athens for example fought the Pelopenesian War with the Delian League. The League was, however, more of an alliance dominated by Athens than a true international organization. A medieval grouping was the Holy Roman Empire. Here the Hapsburgs were not able to totally dominate the Empire, but it did not really have an independent existanance separate from that of the emperor. Perhaps the first real international organization was the Red Cross (1864). Many international organizations have followed the humanitrian impulses which led to the creation of the Red Cross. A range of chritable organizations followed in the wake of the Red Cross. Since World War II there has been a plethora of new international organizations founded to persue a range of social efforts, especially ecological programs which nation states seem to have difficulties addressing. Some international organizations have been overtly political, such as the Socialist internationals. The major international organizations have been aimed at persuing world peace. The first was the League of Nations set up after World War I (1919). The League failed in the face of Fascism. Its successor was the United Nations established after World War II (1945).
The concept of charity negan to appear in some form in ancuient history, although its development was inhibited by religious beliefs. This was prinarily a humanitarian matter. The gods of the anciebts were capricious entities with no moral foundation, hardly charitable entities. The concept of morality on which charity is based in the West began with the Hebrew people and the foundation of the grat Abrahamic relgions. About the same time Budhism was founded begining the develoopment of charitable beliefs in the East. A major impediment to the development of charity was economics. The great mass of humanity were landless peasants eaking out meager existance wh little income available to devote to cgarity even if thet were so inclined. Two factors were ibvolved here. First, early farming technologies were inefficent leading to limited harvests and surpluses. Second, was land ownership patterns. Most farmers did not own their land, meaning they got only a partial sgare, often small, of the harvest they produced. This did not begin to change in a maeaningful way until the American Revolution (1776-83).
The underpinning outlooks contributing to the development humanitarian action are diverse, but are mostly relgious appearing during the Axial Age. The Axial Age is a term coined by the German philosopher Karl Jaspers. He saw broad changes in religious and philosophical thought occurred in both East and West (8th to the 3rd century BC). Growing out of Jewish traditiion, charity became imprtant in both the Christian and Ismaic tradition (Zakat). Jesus in the New testament put an emphais on charity. Christian charity put an emphasis on in individuals. As the Christian Church became established, charity also becme important, but this as at the local level. It was not unyil the late-19th century that the Church began founding charitable institutuins beyond the local level. There was a huge need, most promanely during the Bubonic Plagie (Black Death) epidemic (13th century). We see some beginnings of an stitutional resonse, but again only at the local level--certainly no internatrional resomse. European cities began establishing public health boards to deal with isolation, quarantine and disposal of all the dead bodies. 【Davey and Foley】 It was the very beginnings disaster medicine, although the effectiveness was limited by the primitive state of medical science. We know less about the underpinnings in the Islamic world. Charilty was on of the Five Pillars of Islam. Many Muslims took this seriously. Charity of course continues to be one of the Five Pillars of Islam. In the modern world, Islamic charity to be focused on propigating the fleet and supportin jihad meaning terrorist activities. The 9-11 attack on America was largely financed through Nuslim caritable donatiions.
Ethical concepts begin to develop even in warfare. Interestingly, matters associated with the treatment of soldiers and civilians during war have perhaps had the greatest impact on the organization of modern humanitarian aid. The manifest horrors of war have led to directly to development of modern principles of humanitarian aid, but there are ancient precesents. In the Western tradition this dates back to classical Greece and Rome which appear to be the first socities to set out ideas that outlined acceptable conduct in war. 【Davey and Foley】 In the Eastern tradition Sun Tzu in the The Art of War describes appropriate conduct during war. 【Sun】 This of course is not to say that such ethical idas became widely adopted. We see barbaric behaviot on the part of the Russuians, Hanmas, annd Hezbiolag even today, but it does mean that people were thinking about such concepts even in ancient times. And in modern times we see with the various Geneva conventions a developing consensus on the treatment of civilians, wounded soldiers, and prisoners in times of war.
Major advancs were made in mediine during the 19th century. And attitutudes were changing we see increasing attitudes toward, includin people in far away counties of various races and religion. Christian churches orgaized Abolitionist Movements to launch an attack on the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. The only two Abolitionist Movements of any importnce were the American and British Abolitionist Movements. The most imprtant action was the British decision to use the Royal Navy to end the the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (1807). This as not an international effort. In fact, there as general resistance to the effort from other European countries, especially France as well as total recitance fro Muslim states. It was basucally all up to the Royal Navy. There was some assisatnce from the United States which also outlawed the slave trade (1807). America at the time, however, had only a tiny Navy. A major test of changing attitudes wa the Irish Potato Famine (1840s). And Britain failed miserably. The primary salvation as emogratioin, expecially to America. Enormous tecnological cahnge occured in the 19th century. This only began in the first half og the century. Part of the changes was to make weaoponry much more leatha. And this began to have real impact with the American Civil War (1861-65). The resulting casualties were stunning, in part because the commanders in volved were slow to adjust tactivs. The loss of life was on a never experienced sale. But there were changes in other ares, includin transport and commuicatioins. This mean that there could be virtually instantaneous reporting of major events sych as famine. There have been innumerable famimnea in China's long history. The first one to be reprted in a timely fasgion was the Northern Chinese Famine (1876-79) and it resulted in one the first formal international famine relief effort. 【China Famine Relief】 The presence of large numbers of America and British missionaries in China was an imprtant factor. The Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879 (丁戊奇荒) was caused by drought resulting in crop failures leading to widespread starvation. Some 9.5-13.0 million people are believed to have died. The famine wss particularly severe in Shanxi province. The drought began in 1875 and was the El Niño-Southern Oscillation was the major cause. 【Ó Gráda】 It was British missionary Timothy Richard who fitst brought the drought tonworl attention 1876). He first appaled to the foreign community in Shanghai for money to help the victims. The Shandong Famine Relief Committee consisting of diplomats, businessmen, and Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries. 【Janku】
The idea of an international organization is a very modern concept. The International Committee of the Red cross was founded (1864). This created a precedent that was soon extended in other areas. The next international organization resulted from advances in technology. The International Telecommunication Union was founded to resolve issues concerning the transmission of telegrams across borders (1865). The Universal Postal Union was established (1874). Both are now United Nations specialized agencies. Within only a few decades,the issue of ending the sourage of war. The International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to create instruments for settling international disputes peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare (1899). The Conference adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began to function (1902).
The concept of charity began to appear has been present in some form throughout human history, yet the modern concept of humanitarian aid only truly emerged in the 20th century. this involved a complex progression of world events beginning with World War I and the war crimes launched by the Central Powers. It was in the 20th century that we begin to see major international efforts, essentially founding international humanitarianism and the United States was at the heart of this effort. There is no precise accounting, but America saved tens of millions lives. The total could have easily approached 100 million lives saved. America's status as a neutral until 1917 was a factor in ability to play a role in humanitarian efforts. There were four major efforts that came out of the tragedy of World War I: 1) Belgian famine relief, 2) Near East Relief, 3) European famine relief, and 4) the Jewish Joint. These efforts were necessary because of brutal German and Ottoman policies. The German policies were brutal, but nothing like the unimaginable NAZI atrocities of World War. The Ottoman Empire launched the Armenian Genocide. The Young Turks who founded the modern Turkish state. Other countries were involved, but the United States was the major country in all four of these efforts. The United States did much of its relief efforts through the Red Cross, because of the agency's extensive intentional contacts. This changed with the advent of World War II, The United States did not not rely on the Red Cross for humanitarian relief as it did in World War I, but used the Red Cross primarily to aid servicemen. Today a wide variety of organizations and actors are engaged in humanitarian aid. After the War there has been a proliferation of international groups addressing a wide range of international needs.
There are two different types of international organizations. First are the organizations like the League of Nations and the United Nations which are formed by nation states and those states are the members. Second are non-govermental prganizations (NGOs) which areformed by individual citizens, although othere may be national chapters.
The idea of an international organization is a very modern concept. The International Committee of the Red cross was founded (1864). This created a precedent that was soon extended in other areas. The next international organization resulted from advances in technology. The International Telecommunication Union was founded to resolve issues concerning the transmission of telegrams across borders (1865). The Universal Postal Union was established (1874). Both are now United Nations specialized agencies. Within only a few decades, the issue of ending the sourage of war. The International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to create instruments for settling international disputes peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare (1899). The Conference adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began to function (1902). The best known internationl organizations or those formed and financed by governments. Governmnt funding gives governmental organizations the ability to build substantial organizations and take on major problems. The two most important are the League of Nations and the United Nations. The League was fonded after World War I (1919). The U.N. was founded after World War II (1945). The United Nations is a much more substantial and well-funded organization than the League. Many well know international organizations today are U.N. units. Some are League organizations taken on by the U.N., but many are new proframs.
Non-governmental organizations are also very new organizations. They appeared at about the same time that governmental organizations began to appear (late-19th century). The earliest non-religious organization we know of any importance was the Red Cross (1864). Most governmental organizations were organized in the 20th century. Quite a few came out of World War II, but it was World war II that esultd in even more organizations. After the War vast network of humanitriam organizations were formed and invreasing concern with the enviroment resulted in even mmore different groups. .
Oxfam is a largely British charity created as a result of the World War II Greek famine. This occurred after the NAZI occupation of Greece (April 1941). The Germans began seizing food supplies for transport to the Reich. This caused a famine in Greece. Primeminister Churchill opposed the effort and banned on aid to Greece. Obviously feeding occupied countries made it easirt for the NAZIs to loot the countries to support the war effort. Oxfam defended their Greek famine relief effort, claiming that they were apolitical and neutral on issues unrelated not related to the mission set for themselves--feeding the hungry. Oxfam continues with this effort and because of their insistamce on being apolitical, deals with countries involved with terrible attrocities. Currently that means Sudan wageing the genocide in Darfur and the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe commiting terrible crimes against humanity. Oxfam justifies this by saying if they criticized these and other similar regimes, their relief efforts would be threatened. Oxfam thus does business with the dictators in Sudan and Zimbabwe and remains mute about genocide and famine. Oxfam insists that these larger issues are not what they were established to address and to do so would endanger their core mission. Oxfam makes one exception to its apolitical stance and that is Israel. Oxfam has repeateldly persued political condemnations of Israel. It has repeatedly condemned Israel for human rights violations, but remained silent on Palestinian human rights abuses--such as suicide bombing of civilians, rockets attacks on Isreali civilians, and the use of children for attacks on Isrealis. Oxfam takes a very active position on the Isreali-Arab condlict, stongly supporting thge Atabs. They demanded, for example, that the British Government reveal if British companies have supplied components for Apache helicopters to Israel that were used to kill Hamas leaders envolved on terror attacks. There was no comparable Oxfam effort to investigate British concerns funelling money to Hamas which is carring out terror attacks. Recently we have learned of Oxfam enployees engaging in dispicavle behavior like using the ogranization's money to hire poristitutes in Haiti.
The first mon-religiou international organization was the Red Cross (1864). The Red Cross was created to alleviate human suffering and to promote public health. J.H. Dunnat in Switzerland played a key role in the founding of the Red Cross. The Red Cross was founded in Switzerland because of its neutral status. The symbol of the Red Cross became appropriately a red cross, the reverse of the Swiss flag. Self-governing Red Cross societies were formed in member countries. Clara Barton helped found the American Red Cross (1881). The governing body of the Red Cross is the International Committee for the Red Cross. From the very begnning the Red Cross asked infividual countries to organize national chapters. The Red Cross for the most part id is supported by volunary contributions. This was complicated by the appearance of Communiust countries where the state and Party controlled economoc activity as well as varing attitiudes toward charity in different countries. The Red Cross is the premier charitable organization to deal with natural disasters and the impact of war on civilans and soldiers. The Red Cross provided invaluable servives during World sar I and World War II in Europe. In the Pacific, the Japanese refused to cooperate. The Japanese chapter was founded (1887) and Japan even hosted the 15th International Conference of the Red Cross (1934). But the Japanese militaty ordered its soldiers not to surrender and treated Allied POWs horribly. The Red Cross has played critical roles in numeous natural disasters. Its ability is limited, however, in developing countries without infrastructure. Here the Red Cross have to rely on member countries able to rapidly deploy disaster assistance which largely meand the United States. There have been some serious problems with the Red Cross. The German chapter was taking over by the NAZIs and thus tagently involved in the Holocaust. The International Committee has in recent years been politicized especally by Muslim countries.
The central themne of socialism is that the goods produced in society should be held in common and distrubuted equally. This basic idea is not new. Idealized socialist concepts can be identified as early as ancient Greece in Plato's Republic, Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, and the millenarian movements of medieval Europe. Socialist concepts were expressed as Europe entered the modern era. Beginning in the late 19th century, a series of international congresses were held to promote the world socialist movement. After the Russian Revolution, the Socilist or Communist internatinals became a tool of Soviet foreign policy.
Davey E, Borton J and M. Foley. "A history of the humanitarian system: Western origins and foundations" HPG Working Paper. (Overseas Development Institute: London: 2013).
Janku, Andrea "The North-China Famine of 1876–1879: Performance and Impact of a Non-Event" (PDF). Measuring Historical Heat: Event, Performance, and Impact in China and the West. (2001). pp. 127–34.
Ó Gráda, Cormac. Famine: A Short History (Princeton University Press:2009). Ó Gráda is an Irish economist fiocused on famine issues.
Sun, Tzu. The Art of War (Orange Publishing: 2013).
"China famine relief fund Shanghai Committee . "The great famine: report of the committee of the Chine famine relief fund,"American Presbyterian Mission Press; Shanghai: 1879. Ava
"Oxfam calls for clarity on Apaches," Guardian (Britain) (April 21, 2004).
Navigate the Children in History Website:
[Return to the Main history page]
[About Us]
[Introduction]
[Biographies]
[Chronology]
[Clothing]
[Disease and Health]
[Economics]
[Environmental issues]
[Feminism]
[Geography]
[History]
[Human Nature]
[Law]
[Nationalism]
[Presidents]
[Religion]
[Royalty]
[Science]
[Social Class]
[Bibliographies]
[Contributions]
[FAQs]
[Glossaries]
[Images]
[Index]
[Links]
[Registration]
[Search]
[Tools]
[Children in History Home]
